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RE-POST: FAQ 2/3- SCI.BIO.FOOD-SCIENCE Frequently-Asked Questions
See 1/3 See this part for a list of food science related sites and a
list of abbreviations.
See 3/3 for general questions and answers about food science.
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IV.DEFINITIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF FOOD RELATED TERMS
In the following list of definitions of food-related words and
phrases, some of the items relate to the requirements under UK and/or
European laws, regulations or Codes of Practice. In the near future
anther list will be given referring to the requirements under US laws
and regulations, and, in time, those of other countries.
Any questions or comments about these definitions and
interpretations should be directed to: <jralphb@easynet.co.uk
INTRODUCTION
In 1987, the Technical and Legislative Committee (TLC) of the
Institute of Food Science & Technology, conscious that many
descriptions of, or claims about, foods were made using ill-defined
terms which were potentially misleading, set out to remedy that
situation. Making use both of published material and the expertise of
the Committee, it prepared and issued objective "definitions" for
certain key words, a few of which were not considered potentially
confusing but merely useful to include.
The intention was not strict definitions in the dictionary
sense. Some were accounts or interpretations of the limitations
within which the use of a particular term was justified. Moreover, the
intention was not to produce a comprehensive dictionary of
food-related terms, but rather a guide to food scientists and
technologists, and others professionally concerned with descriptions
of foods, particularly in labelling and advertising. In 1989, the list
was expanded and published in Food Science & Technology Today 3 (2),
128-9.
In the period since that publication, some of those terms have
been "officially" defined in legislation, official guidelines or
Codes of Practice - and it is gratifying to note the extent to which
these follow the lines of the definitions in the 1989 document. In the
same period, members of IFST and of the Association of Public Analysts
have suggested additional terms that are in common usage but are
ill-defined or sometimes misused. Accordingly, the two professional
bodies have decided to produce jointly an updated list.
The list given here includes some terms that were in the 1989
list (in some cases modified or updated); and some terms that have
been defined in the interim in legislation or in codes or guides. Many
of the terms listed here have wider connotations in relation to which
they may be defined or interpreted; but here it is only the
food-related usage that is addressed.
We draw attention to the category Marketing Terms at the end of
this document, in which have been listed a number of terms often used
without real meaning in relation to manufactured food products.
As before, it is hoped that the use, by professionals, of these
definitions and interpretations will help to minimise confusion and
misleading use of the terms. With any such exercise, some readers will
have differing views on individual items, or on the desirability of
including other terms. IFST and APA will be glad to receive
constructive comments from members, for consideration when this
document is next revised and updated.
Finally, it is pointed out that definitions other than those
derived from EU or UK legislation, and all interpretations expressed
here, are opinion, albeit opinion based on the views of the experts
involved in their compilation. The information in this document may
not be taken as binding on Public Analysts or enforcement authorities,
and, in the event of dispute, only the courts can decide.
Malvern Barnett
J Ralph
Blanchfield
Adulteration
The addition or contamination of a food by a substance foreign
to the normal product, which debases it or disguises inferior
quality. See Unadulterated.
Botulinum Cook
The heat treatment given to a low acid canned food (having
a pH higher than 4.2) sufficient to inactivate 1012 spores of
Clostridium botulinum. This heat treatment is called the Fo value and
it is equivalent to a process of 3 mins at 121 degC, 10 mins at 115
degC or 32 mins at 110 degC.
Biopolymer
A compound consisting of repeating units of a single
biologically produced molecule, either straight chain or branched,
e.g. amylose, amylopectin and cellulose.
Biotechnology
The application of biological science to the production,
modification or processing of materials. It encompasses
long-established activities such as traditional plant and animal
breeding, brewing, bread-making and effluent treatment, and the more
modern techniques of genetic modification and the use of fermentation
technology for the production of some novel protein foods. Though meal
preparation is arguably a form of biotechnology, it is already covered
in other newsgroups, such as rec.cooking.* hierarchy.
Boiled
Having been cooked in boiling water (or, by extension, by
steaming, as in 'boil-in-the-bag').
Chilled food
Perishable food which, to extend the time during which it
remains wholesome, is kept within a specified range of temperature
usually between 2 and 8 degC.
Chilled food chain
The sequence of temperature controlled operations after initial
harvesting, and including chilled transport, cooling during and after
production, chilled storage, distribution and retailing, through to
domestic storage until preparation for final consumption.
Comercial Sterility
A sterile product is one free from viable microorganisms, i.e.
those capable of reproducing under optimum conditions for growth.
'Commercial sterility' is a term commonly used in the canning industry
meaning the condition achieved by the application of heat sufficient
to render the processed product free from viable microorganisms
(including those of known public health significance), capable of
growing in the food under normal non-refrigerated temperatures at
which the food is likely to be held during distribution and storage.
Controlled atmosphere packaging
A procedure whereby residual air in a food pack is replaced
by a gas such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, in order to minimise
deteriorative changes on storage. An example is the packaging of
peanuts in an atmosphere of nitrogen to inhibit rancidity.
Where food has been packed in this way in order to increase
shelf life, the Food Labelling Regulations 1996 require the
statement 'packaged in a protective atmosphere' to appear on the
label.
Convenience food
A manufactured product requiring little or no preparation (other
than heating, diluting or dissolving in water, where appropriate)
before consumption.
Cooked
Having been subjected to a heating process sufficient to render
the food suitable for consumption.
Critical control point
Any point in a specific food system where loss of control may
result in an unacceptable risk.
Crude fibre
The structural component of the plant cell wall being the
residue obtained after consecutive acid and alkali digestion of a food
or food material. Crude fibre is determined for nutritional
declarations on animal feeding stuffs and also for defining brown
bread in the Bread and Flour Regulations 1984.
Dairy
When used as a descriptive term for food, refers exclusively to
milk and milk products. In the EU its use is legally governed by
Council Regulation 1898/87 on the Protection of Designations used in
the marketing of Milk and Milk Products, as supplemented by Commission
Decision 888/566/EEC. Help in interpreting some of these provisions
was given by a MAFF Guidance Note (November 1989). The Council
Regulation was subsequently implemented by the UK in the Milk and Milk
Products (Protection of Designations) Regulations 1990.
Dairy-free (Non-dairy)
A description that may be applied to a food that is free from
milk products and also from milk derivatives such as lactose,
caseinate and whey powder.
Dehydrated (food)
Food or food products from which all but a small percentage of
the water has been removed under controlled conditions.
Designer food(s)
See Functional Foods and Marketing Terms.
Disinfection
The application of effective chemical or physical agents or
processes to a cleaned surface or to a water supply to reduce the
number of microorganisms to a level consistent with good hygiene
practice.
Dietary fibre
In scientific terms, dietary fibre is a mixture of components
derived from plant cell wall material and non-structural
polysaccharides, as well as non-starch polysaccharides added to
foods. It includes non-digestible polysaccharides such as cellulose,
hemicelluloses, gums, pectins, mucilages and lignin. From a nutrition
point of view, some authorities also include 'resistant starch' (i.e.
starch that is resistant to enzymic degradation, usually as a result
of processing).
Currently, there is no universally accepted method for
determination of dietary fibre. For some years the UK Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) has adopted the definition, for
the purposes of label declaration, that dietary fibre is non-starch
polysaccharides as determined by the Englyst method; but in Guidelines
issued in March 1994, MAFF indicated that analysts may use any other
methods which give similar results. The Englyst method excludes
resistant starch. Most EU countries and the USA use the AOAC Prosky
method. This method includes resistant starch and the value for
dietary fibre obtained is therefore invariably higher than that by the
Englyst method. It should be noted, however, that no recognised
analytical method fully corresponds to biological performance.
Emulsion
A term descriptive of a food or food material consisting of a
stable blend of two or more otherwise immiscible liquids, usually an
oil and an aqueous phase, achieved by appropriate physical means and
usually with the incorporation of emulsifying and stabilising agents.
Enriched
See "fortified foods"
Fast Food
This term is not descriptive of food per se, but categorises a
type of catering outlet, providing, within seconds of being ordered,
counter delivery of freshly-prepared food items capable of being eaten
without cutlery. This delivery is mainly dependent on scheduling based
on accurate anticipation of fluctuating demand, a production system
and staff capable of keeping pace with it, and sufficient counter
servers to minimise queuing. Because some foods (e.g. burgers) have
lent themselves more readily to this type of operation, the term has
come to be applied to them too.
Fermentation
The process of chemical change in animal or plant material,
catalysed by enzymes of biological origin. It may be intended, as in
brewing of beer or vinegar, or unintended and undesirable, as in food
spoilage.
Fermented (food)
Food material having been subjected to fermentation
Fibre
Sometimes used synonymously with "dietary fibre" including in
European and UK nutrition labelling legislation
Flavour/flavoured
The term 'flavour' may have reference to sensory quality of
a food as perceived by a combination of smell and taste.
Alternatively, 'flavour', for which the legally correct term is
'flavouring', is defined in the Flavouring in Food Regulations 1992 as
a material used to impart odour, taste or both to a food. Under the UK
Food Labelling Regulations 1996, if the declared flavour of a product
is derived wholly or mainly from the named food, the product name is
(for example) "Strawberry X". If it does not derive wholly or mainly
from the named food, the product name is "Strawberry Flavour X".
The UK Food Standards Committee's 2nd Report on Food Labelling
suggested that consumers do not appreciate the difference between
'flavour', which the FSC equated with artificial flavouring and
'flavoured' which they equated with the use of the real food to
provide flavouring.
The UK Food Advisory Committee (FAC), in its 1990 Report on
Labelling, decided that the difference between 'flavour' and
'flavoured' was significant and that since consumers were said to have
difficulty distinguishing between the two, 'flavour' should be banned
and replaced by 'taste'.
The supposed confusion between the two words is a misconception.
Contrary to paragraph 64 of the FAC Report, the then Food Labelling
Regulations 1984 as amended, and the current UK Food Labelling
Regulations 1996. make no provision for the use of the term
'flavoured'. As indicated above those Regulations provide for (e.g.)
'Strawberry X' or 'Strawberry Flavour X' but no intermediate
designation such as ' strawberry flavoured X'.
The only legal use of "flavoured" is in the Cocoa and Chocolate
Products Regulations 1976. In those Regulations, cocoa products and
non-filled chocolates may be described as 'Y flavoured chocolate', as
the case may be, if the flavour is derived wholly or mainly from Y.
The term 'flavour' serves a useful and well-established
purpose. The FAC suggestion to prohibit it and substitute 'taste'
(reiterated in September 1994) is scientifically inaccurate and, if it
were to be embodied in legislation, would create instead of removing
confusion.
Food
In the UK Food Safety Act 1990, 'food' is defined as including
(a) drink; (b) articles and substances of no nutritional value which
are used for human consumption; (c) chewing gum and other products of
a like nature and use; and (d) articles and substances used as
ingredients in the preparation of food or anything falling within this
subsection. It does not include (a) live animals or birds, or live
fish which are not used for human consumption while they are alive;
(b) fodder or feeding stuffs for animals, birds or fish; (c)
controlled drugs within the meaning of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971;
and (d) subject to certain exceptions, medicinal products in respect
of which product licences or marketing authorisations are in force.
This definition states what 'food' includes and excludes (similarly to
the latter part of the Codex definition) but it is deficient in
failing to define what food is, i.e. does not specify "intended for
human consumption".
The Codex Alimentarius defines 'food' as "any substance,
whether processed, semi processed or raw, which is intended for human
consumption and includes drink, chewing gum and any substance which
has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of food,
but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances only used as
drugs".
The EU Commission, in its November 2000 Proposal for a
Regulation laying down the general principles and requirements of food
law, establishing the European Food Authority, and laying down
procedures in matters of food, proposed the following definition:
'Food' (or 'foodstuff') means any substance or product, whether
processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or
expected to be ingested by humans. It includes drink, chewing gum and
any substance intentionally incorporated into the food during its
manufacture, preparation or treatment. It includes water, without
prejudice to the requirements of Directives 80/778/EEC and 98/83/EC.
It shall not include:
(a) feed;
(b) live animals unless they are prepared, packaged and/or
served for human consumption;
(c) plants prior to harvesting;
(d) medicinal products within the meaning of Council Directive
65/65/EEC 17;
(e) cosmetics within the meaning of Council Directive 76/768/EEC
18 ;
(f) tobacco and tobacco products within the meaning of Council
Directive 89/622/EEC 19 ;
(g) narcotic or psychotropic substances within the meaning of
the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961
and the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances,
1971.
Food hygiene
All environmental factors, practices, processes and precautions
involved in protecting food from contamination by any agency, and
preventing any organism present from multiplying to an extent that
would expose consumers to risk or result in premature spoilage or
decomposition of food.
Fortified (food)
Three separate circumstances may be defined: Restored, enriched,
and fortified foods, as described here:
Restore
the addition of nutrients to foods in order to restore the
level of those nutrients that were originally present, but have
been destroyed or lost in processing.
Enrich
The addition to a food of one or more nutrients which were
already present in that food in lower than desirable amounts.
Fortify
The addition to a food of significant quantities of a
nutrient that was not originally present in that food or was
present only in nutritionally insignificant amount.
Free from ....
For food to be described as 'free from X' (or by terms having a
similar import) the food, at the point of sale, must be either free
from
X when tested by a standard reference method of analysis or it must
contain no more than a specified maximum of X.
Free from added ....
If a food in its original state contains X, it may be described
as
'free from added X' (or by terms having a similar import) only if no X
has been introduced, directly or indirectly, via any ingredient or
during production, manufacture, processing, packaging, storage,
distribution or point of sale. MAFF Guidelines (1993) specify that 'no
added sugar' means that no sugars, or foods composed mainly of sugars,
should be added to a food or any of its ingredients; and that 'no
added salt' means that no salt or sodium compounds should be added to
the
food
or to any of its ingredients.
It should be noted, however, that in the instance of a food which
strictly complies with the foregoing but itself has a high sugar
content
(for example date paste) the description 'no added sugar', though
true, could be held to be misleading (Section 3(2) of the Trade
Descriptions Act 1968).
Fresh
The condition of a short shelf-life perishable unprocessed food
prior to perceptible evidence of physical, chemical or microbiological
change. Fresh is normally applied to unprocessed foods e.g. fresh
eggs, fresh meat, showing that they are in their original state. It is
also used in apparently contradictory terms, e.g. fresh pasteurised
cream to distinguish it from more highly processed sterilised cream.
Functional
Fulfilling a specific physical, chemical or biological function.
Functional food(s)
All foods are functional, and to term some (as distinct from
others) as 'functional' is illogical. The term is one of the
marketing-coined names (others are 'neutraceuticals' and 'designer
foods') to categorise foods which are considered or claimed to offer
specific health benefits while avoiding the requirement to be licensed
medicines (See Marketing terms, below).
Genetic modification
The process of making changes to the genes of an organism
(whether an animal or plant organism or a microorganism). Genetic
changes occur spontaneously in nature over a long period of time, but
they may be produced intentionally either by traditional methods of
selective breeding of animals and plants, or by modern methods of
removal or insertion of genes. The latter method involves four basic
steps;
1. the DNA of a cell of the donor organism is broken down and
the pieces separated;
2. the desired gene is selected;
3. that gene is copied many times; and
4. nth generation laboratory copies (not the donor's original
genes) are then inserted into the DNA of the receiver
organism.
'Within-species' genetic modification is essentially similar to
traditional breeding methods (except that it is much speedier and much
less haphazard). Through 'trans-species' modification, results are
obtainable that could not be obtained by traditional breeding methods.
In relation to food, the potential scientific benefits of genetic
modification are:
* Improved agricultural performance (yields) with reduced use
of pesticides
* Ability to grow crops in inhospitable environments (e.g. via
increased ability of plants to grow in conditions of drought,
salinity and extremes of temperature
* Delayed ripening, permitting improvements in quality and
processing advantages.
* Altered sensory attributes of food (e.g. flavour, texture,
etc.) * Improved nutritional attributes e.g. combatting
anti-nutritive
and allergenic factors, and increased Vitamin A content in
rice.
* Improved processing characteristics leading to reduced waste
and lower food costs to the consumer.
Some forms of trans-species modification may give rise to ethical and
religious issues.
See also FAQ in section V (including within-species and
trans-species) Part 2, Q 7, 8, and 9
Genetically modified-See FAQ same sections as above
Genuine
'Genuine' in connection with foods means an authentic type or
source. It serves to distinguish ingredients which might otherwise be
synthetic (e.g. 'vanilla ice cream, made with genuine vanilla') or it
may establish the origin or type of a food (e.g. genuine Manzanilla
olives, genuine Italian olive oil).
GMP
'Good manufacturing practice' (GMP) is that part of a food
control
operation aimed at ensuring that products are consistently
manufactured to a specified quality appropriate to their intended use.
It thus has two complementary and interacting components; the
manufacturing operation itself and the control system and procedures.
Reference
should
be made to the IFST publication 'Food and Drink - Good Manufacturing
Practice: A Guide to its Responsible Management'. (3rd Edition, 1991).
HACCP
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a preventive
system of food control. It involves
1. Hazard analysis - examining and analysing every stage of
a food-related operation to identify and assess hazards
(q.v., below);
2. determining the 'critical control points' (q.v., above) at
which action is required to control the identified hazards;
3. establishing the critical limits that must be met at each
critical control point;
4. establishing monitoring procedures;
5. establishing corrective procedures when a deviation is
identified by monitoring;
6. establishing verification procedures to demostrate that it
is working correctly.
7. Establishing record-keeping and documentation.
A few authoritative sources of information are:
* "HACCP Systems and Guidelines" , CODEX Alimentarius, 1997. *
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and
Application Guidelines, (US) National Advisory Committee on
Microbiological Safety of Foods, 14 August 1997
http://www.fst.vt.edu/haccp97/
* Food Safety and Inspection Service, US Department of
Agriculture, Pathogen Reduction/HACCP & HACCP Implementation
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OA/haccp/imphaccp.htm
* Canadian Food Inspection Agency 's Food Safety Enhancement
Program Web page of links at
http://www.cfia-acia.agr.ca/english/ppc/haccp/haccp.html
* A Simple Guide to Understanding and Applying the Hazard
Analysis Critical Control Point Concept. ILSI Europe, 1997.
http://www.ilsi.org/pubs/ilsihace.pdf
HAZOP
Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) is a systematic structured
approach to questioning the sequential stages of a proposed operation
in
order to optimise the efficiency and the management of risk. Thus, the
application of HAZOP to the design of a proposed food-related
operation,
should result in a system in which as many critical control points as
possible have been eliminated, making the subsequent application of
HACCP during subsequent operations much easier to carry out.
Hazard
Any intrinsic property of a system, operation, material or
situation that could, in certain circumstances, lead to an adverse
consequence. In food terms, this particularly refers to an adverse
consequence (health risk or loss by spoilage) to the consumer.
Health food
This is essentially a marketing term, the meaning of which has
never been clear. There is no legal basis and no evident objective
justification for the term, which implies a superiority over foods not
so described. So-called health foods fall into four main categories,
namely
1) products in respect of which there is adequate scientific
substantiation for the specific permissible nutrition and/or health
claims made, and which are labelled in accordance with relevant
legislation;
2) those in respect of which there is 'folklore' and some
scientific evidence for the claims, but falling short of
substantiation;
3) those making claims for which there is little or no scientific
evidence;
4) other products that are frequently sold in health food shops
e.g. 'wholefoods' (q.v.).
It should be noted that some products in categories 2 and 3 have
given rise to concerns about their safety, which, in certain cases,
have
led to prohibition.
Hermetically sealed container
Strictly, an 'hermetically sealed container' is one that is
sealed
so as to be air-tight. Commercially sterile food products may be
packed in non-metallic containers that are not completely air-tight.
In the latter context, an 'hermetically sealed container' has been
defined as one that is designed and intended to be secure against
entry of microorganisms.
High in .....
Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
legally-specified minimum, or a legally-specified percentage increase
compared with a product not making a "high in" claim for the
parameters involved."
Higher in (increased) .....
Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
legally-specified percentage increase compared with a product not
making
such a claim, for the parameter involved.
Home made
This term has no defined meaning but it implies that a food has
been prepared on a small scale, either on domestic premises or
premises not associated with large scale manufacture.
Improved
Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction
with
'new', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, including minor
cosmetic changes, cost-cutting changes, and formulation changes to
make the product more acceptable to purchasers. It is the latter case
that most properly justifies the use of the term.
Instant
This term is strictly justified only in the cases of dry powders
or
mixes which rehydrate instantly, i.e. in a matter of a few seconds
(e.g.
instant coffee, instant tea) and should be reserved for such speedy
action. By extension, however, the term has sometimes been misused by
applying it to dry mix products which rehydrate faster than some
others but still take a few minutes rather than a few seconds. For the
latter, a term such as 'rapid' would be more appropriate.
Irradiated
Having been subjected to ionising radiation.
Isotonic
A term applied to a liquid product, e.g. a drink, having osmotic
properties approximating to those of blood serum, i.e. 280 milli-
osmoles per kg. However, the EU Scientific Committee for Food's
February 2001 Report on Sports Drinks
http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out64_en.pdf includes
"It has become common to refer to carbohydrate-electrolyte
sports drinks as isotonic drinks, as though the tonicity was
their most important characteristic. The osmolality of ingested
fluids is important as this can influence both the rates of
gastric emptying and of intestinal water flux: both of these
processes together will determine the effectiveness of
rehydration fluids at delivering water for rehydration. An
increasing osmolality of the gastric contents will tend to delay
emptying, and increasing the carbohydrate or electrolyte content
of sports drinks will generally result in an increased
osmolality. The composition of the drinks and the nature of the
solutes is, however, of greater importance than the osmolality
itself??."
and concludes:
"Although most of the popular sports drinks are formulated to
have as close to that of body fluids [102] and are promoted as
isotonic drinks, there is good evidence that hypotonic solutions
are more effective when rapid rehydration is desired. Although it
is argued that a higher osmolality is inevitable when adequate
amounts of carbohydrate are to be included in sports drinks, the
optimum amount of carbohydrate necessary to improve exercise
performance has not been clearly established."
Junk Food
This term has no specific meaning. It is an invented label
which has, for example, been applied indiscriminately to all fast food
and all snack foods. It has also been applied to any food high in fat
and/or sugar (and so in calories) but low in other nutrients. However,
there is no evidence that such foods are other than acceptable as part
of a balanced diet
Light/Lite
These terms are used to signify a lower energy or lower fat
version
of a particular food, [and therefore should comply with conditions
applying to a reduced .... claim. (see Reduced .......)]. That would
imply at least 25% reduction of the norm, but some opinion holds that
it
should mean at least 50% reduction.
Low calorie/low energy
A description which may be applied to foods which, when ready for
consumption, have an energy value no greater than 167 kJ (40 kcal) per
100 g (for the purposes of theUK Food Labelling Regulations 1984,
intense sweeteners and similar products are exempted from this limit).
Low in .....
Complying either with a declared or, where existing, a
legally-specified maximum or a legally-specified percentage reduction
compared with a product not making a 'low in' claim for the parameters
involved.
Manufacture
The complete cycle of production of a food product from the
acquisition of all materials, through all stages of subsequent
processing, packaging and storage, to the despatch of the finished
product.
Meat
'Meat' means the flesh, including fat and the skin, rind, gristle
and sinew in amounts naturally associated with the flesh, of any
animal or bird which is normally used for human consumption, but
including
only
those parts of the carcase listed in Part I of Schedule 2 of the UK
Meat
Products and Spreadable Fish Products Regulations 1984.
Note that from 1 January 2003 EU Member States will have to
give effect to a Directive amending Directive 2000/13/EC, limiting the
definition of "meat" to skeletal-attached muscle plus not more than
25% muscle-adhering fat and connective tissue (not more than 10% in
the case of birds and rabbits), requiring systematic indication of the
species from which the meat comes, and excluding "mechanically
separated meat" from the definition.
Natural
The extensive use of 'natural' in labelling and advertising
arises
from a public misconception, that 'natural' necessarily means 'safe',
healthy', 'nutritious' (in contrast to its perceived opposites,
'unnatural', 'unsafe', 'chemical', 'processed', etc). The consequent
marketing view that 'natural' should be used wherever possible to
reassure those fearing adverse effects of 'unnatural' foods, resulted
in
widespread indiscriminate use of 'natural' despite the efforts of food
scientists and technologists in industry and enforcement to restrict
its
use to justifiable cases. Although based on a misconception of the
significance of 'natural', if some consumers wish to select foods
which are 'natural', they are entitled to information that is
meaningful and not misleading.
In 1989 MAFF published FAC guidelines on the detailed conditions
and circumstances in which the use of 'natural' or similar terms) was
justified. In summary these were (a) to describe single foods of a
traditional nature to which nothing has been added and which have been
subjected only to such processing as to render them suitable for human
consumption.; (b) to describe food ingredients obtained from
recognised food sources, and which meet the criteria in (a); (c) to
describe flavouring substances (but see 'natural flavouring', below)
or
permitted
food additives obtained from recognised food sources by appropriate
physical processes or traditional food preparation processes. The
reference in (a) to 'a traditional nature' was intended to exclude
foods
such as mycoprotein which may be products of natural sources but were
not considered by FAC to accord with the public perception of
'natural'.
Compound food should not be described as 'natural' but could be
described as 'made from natural ingredients' if all of the ingredients
comply with (b) or (c). In the cases of foods not complying with the
above criteria, 'natural' or its derivatives should not be used in
brand
or fancy names or incorporated in meaningless copy. Phrases such as
'naturally good', naturally better', etc should be avoided.
At the time IFST urged that the abuse of the term was such that
these conditions should be embodied in legislation, but Ministers
decided otherwise. Nevertheless, although these conditions do not have
de jure force of law, enforcement authorities and courts can use them
as
yardsticks in assessing whether a particular usage is misleading; so
to that extent they have de facto legal force.
However, see also the FAC Review of the use of the terms Fresh,
Pure, Natural etc. in Food Labelling 2001, in connection with which
the UK Food Standards Agency has announced an intention to legislate
www.foodstandards.gov.uk/press_releases/uk_press/2001/pr010725.htm
Natural flavouring
The UK Flavourings in Food (Amendment) Regulations 1994 now
provides a legal definition to supersede that provided in relation to
flavourings in the FAC Guidelines on the use of the word 'natural'. It
provides that a 'natural' flavouring may be obtained from vegetable or
animal material by enzymatic or microbiological methods as well as
physical ones; and that if the name of the flavouring refers to its
vegetable or animal origin, it can only be designated 'natural' if it
is
derived wholly or mainly from the named vegetable or animal source.
Nature-Identical
a term applied to flavouring substances or mixtures thereof that
have been synthesised or isolated from aromatic raw materials but are
chemically identical with substances found in natural products used
for human consumption - in the US this is otherwise known as
"Artificial flavor".
New
Primarily a marketing term, and sometimes used in conjunction
with
'improved', it may cover a wide variety of circumstances, ranging from
a
minor formulation or packaging change from a previously marketed
product,
through a product that is new to the manufacturer but very similar to
products already on the market, to a product that is really
innovative. How long can a product labelled 'New' continue to be so
labelled? There is no official answer, and it is extremely difficult
to give one. This is because a new product may be subjected to test
marketing in a particular part of the country, and then 'rolled out'
progressively until it reaches national distribution, perhaps taking
up to two years in doing so. A maximum of one year from national
distribution seems a reasonable limit.
Novel (food, process)
Food or food ingredients produced from raw material that has not
hitherto been used (or has been used only to a small extent) for human
consumption in the area of the world in question, or that is produced
by
a new or extensively modified process not previously used in the
production of food. A question open to debate is "At what point does a
novel food (e.g. mycoprotein), having come on the market and being
fairly widely consumed, cease to be a novel food?"
Any person or company contemplating marketing in the UK a novel
food or one containing a novel ingredient should make a prior
submission
to the Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP).
Nutraceutical
See Functional food.
Organic
(See FAQ part 1, No. 20 for comparisons between organic and
other foods)
Organic food can be defined as "the product of a farming system
which avoids the use of man-made fertilisers, pesticides, growth
regulators and livestock feed additives. Instead the system relies on
crop rotation, animal and plant manures, some hand weeding and
biological pest control". This definition serves to distinguish the
use of the word 'organic' in this context from its more traditional
scientific meaning as a description of a carbon-containing molecule.
'Organic' is the description used only in English-speaking countries;
in other markets 'Bio' , 'Oko' or 'Eco' are appropriate. The Organic
Products Regulations 1992 as amended implement EU Council Regulation
EEC No 2091/91 (as amended in 1995) on organic production of
agricultural products and foodstuffs. The use of the word 'organic' is
restricted to agricultural crops and livestock and products made from
them, in compliance with the detailed provisions of Annexes I, II and
III of the Council Regulation.
Organic processed foods are labelled depending on the
proportion of organic ingredients present:
* Category 1: Product contains a minimum of 95% organic
ingredients by weight. Product can be labelled 'Organic'
eg Organic Cornflakes
* Category 2: Product contains 70 - 95% organic ingredients
by weight. Product can be labelled 'Made with Organic
Ingredients' eg Tomato Ketchup made with Organic Tomatoes.
Regulation 2092/91 as amended contains a list of the non-organic
ingredients which can be included in an otherwise organic food - for
example water, salt, permitted food additives, processing aids,
carrier solvents and flavourings. The Regulations also specifically
exclude the use of irradiated or genetically modified (GM) ingredients
in organic food.
Throughout the EU each member state has a national Control Body.
In the UK it is UKROFS, (The Register of Organic Food Standards) which
regulates the activities of six UK Certification Bodies, who are the
organisations charged with inspecting and regulating UK organic
producers and manufacturers. The largest Certification Body is the
Soil Association, which currently undertakes 80% of all certification
in the UK. The other UK Certification Bodies are Organic Farmers &
Growers, Scottish Organic Producers Association, Demeter, Organic Food
Federation (OFF) and Irish Organic Farmers & Growers Association.
Other prominent EU certification bodies include Ecocert (France),
Naturland (Germany) and Skal (Holland), whilst OCIA, OGBA, QAI and FVO
are the prominent certification bodies in the USA. The production of
organic food requires the same involvement of professional food
scientists and technologists and is subject to the same requirements
of good manufacturing practice and food safety as the rest of the food
industry, but is also subject to specific additional legal
requirements as to cultivation, composition and labelling.
Original
This adjective may be justified in respect of a well established
product, to distinguish it from subsequent variants marketed by the
manufacturer. Likewise it could be used in respect of a product which
was first in the marketplace to distinguish it from subsequent
'me-too' imitations.
Probiotic
This term, as a noun or adjective, has previously been used to
refer to 'microorganisms and substances which contribute to the
intestinal microbial balance'. However, the inclusion of 'substances'
created the paradox that antibiotics could be probiotics if they were
specific enough to destroy harmful bacteria thereby restoring the
intestinal microbial balance. Accordingly, it is now suggested that
'probiotic' should be taken to refer to 'a live microbial preparation,
either as a food or animal feed, which can benefit the host through
restoring its intestinal microbial balance'.
The microorganisms most commonly involved as probiotics are the
Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria, Streptococci and some yeasts and moulds.
Probiotic preparations may have one or a mixture of organisms of
various
genera, species, sub-species or strains, and may take a variety of
physical forms.
There is conflicting evidence, and controversy, about the extent
to
which colon flora can be influenced by oral administration of the
various microorganisms involved, at the levels found in conventional
foods.
Processed
Having been subjected to treatment designed to change one or more
of the properties (physical, chemical, microbiological, sensory) of
food.
Processing aid
In the UK Food Labelling Regulations 1984, 'processing aids' are
not separately defined; but the definition of 'additive' 'includes
processing aids insofar as they added to, or used in or on, food'. It
follows that a processing aid is an additive which facilitates
processing without significantly influencing the character or
properties
of the finished product. Examples would be a tablet release agent used
to coat the inside of tablet moulds, or a spray used to allow bread to
be released from baking tins or trays. There are, however, anomalous
instances. For example, if an anti-caking agent is added to a powder
ingredient to facilitate its flow properties while being conveyed to a
mixer, where it is incorporated into a liquid product or a dough for
baking, the anti-caking agent is used solely as a processing aid, and
hence need not be declared. If however, that powder ingredient is
directly packed into containers for sale as such, or is incorporated
in a dry mix product, the anti-caking agent is not acting solely as a
processing aid and must be declared as an additive.
Pure
This word is used as a marketing term, and is usually applied to
a
single ingredient with no additions, e.g. pure vegetable oil, pure
orange juice, whether in the form of a single ingredients food or when
used as a major ingredient of a compound food.
Quality
When applied meaningfully to the character of a food, 'quality'
may
refer to (a) the degree or standard of excellence; or (b) the fitness
for purpose; or (c) the consistency of attainment of the specified
properties of the food. In the context of food control, it is meaning
(c) that applies.
The term is sometimes used in a meaningless marketing sense (e.g.
'X is a quality product').
Raw
In the earliest or primary state, after harvesting or slaughter,
not having been subjected to any treatment apart from cleaning, size
grading or size reduction, (e.g. diced raw vegetables, raw minced
beef).
Some ingredients termed 'raw materials' may actually be 'raw'.
Often, however, one manufacturer's starting materials are other
manufacturers' finished products; and a more accurate description
would be 'starting materials'.
Real
A marketing term, used normally to emphasise the presence of an
authentic ingredient in a product, as distinct from a substitute (e.g.
biscuits with a real chocolate coating).
See also Genuine.
Re-formed
'Re-formed' meat is an artefact having the appearance of a cut,
joint, slice or portion of meat, formed by combining pieces of meat
which have undergone processes generally including tumbling or
massaging
or specific alignment of fibres, with or without the addition of
finely comminuted meat and/or meat emulsion, and then forming in
moulds or
into
shapes. Codes of Practice exist for the labelling of cured meat
products
and quick frozen meat products respectively, made from re-formed
meats.
Reduced ...
Complying either with a declared or, where existing,
legally-specified percentage reduction compared with a product not
making a ""reduced" claim, for the parameter involved.
Restore
See Fortified (foods).
Rich in ...
See High in ...
Risk
The probability that a particular adverse consequence results
from a hazard within a stated time under stated conditions. "Risk
assessment" should take account of both the probability of occurrence
and its seriousness if it occurs. See Hazard and Risk Analysis.
Risk Analysis
This comprises risk assessment, risk management and risk
communication. Risk assessment requires expertise both in the
product or process in which the risk has been identified, and in
modern risk assessment techniques. While experts also have a
responsibility to contribute to risk management (i.e. the action to be
taken in relation to the assessed risk), it is not the province of
experts alone; in relation to a product or process within a food
operation, it is the responsibility of top management; in the wider
context of food legislation it is the responsibility of the
appropriate governmental authority after consultation. Consultation is
part of the process of risk communication, which should take place
both before and after risk management.
Selected
Primarily a marketing term, implying superior quality. It should
not be used unless it can be substantiated that the product quality
has been enhanced by an actual selection process.
Sensory
Relating to the use of the sense organs. (Note the distinction
from
'organoleptic' 'relating to an attribute of a product perceptible by
the
sense organs')..
BS 5098 (identical with ISO 5492: 1992) entitled 'Sensory
Analysis
Vocabulary' provides an extensive and authoritative set of definitions
of terms relating to sensory analysis.
Snack
A small quantity of food, eaten informally between, or in place
of,
main meals.
Snackfood (Snack food)
A convenient food item specifically manufactured for use as a
snack.
Spoilage
Any perceivable change undergone by a food, through any cause,
that
renders it unwholesome or unacceptable for use. Spoilage is usually
the result of enzyme or microbial action resulting, for example, in
lipolytic rancidity, putrefaction, fermentation, or mould growth; but
food can also spoil by other means, for example overlong storage,
non-enzymic browning, or exposure to air or light. In practice the
term is most frequently applied to categorising such deteriorative
changes (other than food infection or intoxication) when caused by
microorganisms.
Steak
'Steak' has, in the past, been taken to mean a cut or thick slice
from the beef animal. However, a judgement in the Court of Appeal in
1986 allowed a re-formed product to be called 'Chicken Breast Steaks
Flaked and Formed Chicken in a Crispy Crumb' on the grounds that the
description of the product, as a whole, was clear, accurate and not
misleading. This judgement, therefore, means that 'steak' can be used,
provided that it is properly qualified, as a generic term, probably in
relation to any animal, bird or fish normally used for human
consumption,
and whether or not the meat has been re-formed.
Traditional
One way of defining 'traditional' in relation to foods and food
processes is to say it is the opposite of 'new' or 'modern' (cf. the
FAC's use of 'traditional' with the intention to exclude novel foods,
see 'natural', above). It can also be applied to a particular
characteristic of a food; for example 'traditional flavour', 'made in
the traditional way'. This leaves unresolved, however, the question
"at what point does yesterday's 'new' or 'modern' become today's
'traditional'?". One suspects that for each generation, 'traditional'
means anything up to and including the foods and methods of one's
early youth! For some, 'traditional' appears to mean rule-of-thumb
craft-based
rather than based on science/technology.
Unadulterated
A food material containing no additions or contaminants foreign
to
the normal product which otherwise would debase it or confer or
disguise
inferior quality.
Wholefood
Any food which contains all its naturally occurring components,
(e.g. pulses, raw vegetables) and without the addition of other
substances. A wholefood can be a mixture of wholefoods.
Wholesomeness
'Wholesomeness' is a convenient single term which embodies a
large
number of aspects and attributes of a food. In summary, a wholesome
food
is one that satisfactorily meets the expectations of the segment of
consumers at which it is aimed; and that has been made, stored and
handled in compliance with any relevant legislative standards and with
all of the principles of good manufacturing practice.
Full consideration of these characteristics is given in IFST
Professional Conduct Guideline 'Wholesomeness of Food'. This relates
to a clause in the Code of Professional Conduct, requiring each member
"to take legitimate steps through proper channels to ensure (or assist
in ensuring) the wholesomeness of any food with which he or she is
concerned".
MARKETING TERMS
When used in the labelling, advertising or description of a food,
the main (and sometimes total) role of the terms listed under this
heading is to promote the sale of the product rather than provide
necessary information to the purchaser. Terms often falling into this
category include 'health food', 'designer food', 'functional food',
'improved', 'natural', 'new', 'pure', 'quality', 'selected',
'traditional'.
Food scientists and technologists who are in a position to advise
on product labelling, advertising or promotional material should do
their best to ensure that such terms are not used in ways that could
mislead (see IFST Professional Guideline No 6 'Scientific Issues and
Food Promotion').
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information to the purchaser. Terms often falling into this
category include 'health food', 'designer food', 'functional food',
'improved', 'natural', 'new', 'pure', 'quality', 'selected',
'traditional'.
Food scientists and technologists who are in a position to advise
on product labelling, advertising or promotional material should do
their best to ensure that such terms are not used in ways that could
mislead (see IFST Professional Guideline No 6 'Scientific Issues and
Food Promotion').
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Paul E. J. King
FAQ Archive Maintainer
rtfm.mit.edu
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