3.3.1 A chronology of important dates
  
   430
          (circa) Saxo Grammaticus, in Gesta Danorum, says that the
          Danish King Frode raised a huge united army from many conquered
          lands and defeated a king of the Huns.
   443
          As Western Europe was threatened by the Huns (A.D. 406~436
          - their most famous king was called Attila) and the Roman
          Empire wasn't capable of holding its position on the British
          islands any more, the Angles were (according to The Anglo-Saxon
          Chronicle) asked to come and participate in the war against the
          Picts. The Angles are believed to have lived somewhere in the
          area of Southern Jutland and the estuary of river Elbe, or
          maybe further north on Jutland.
   449
          The Jutes, the Saxons and more Angles participate in the war on
          Britain. Soon the Britons are fought by the new-comers.
   515
          The first Danish king known from contemporary sources is killed
          during a military attack against the Frankish Empire. Name:
          Huglik [or Chocillaicus in Gregor of Tours' annals].
   737
          (circa) Danevirke is founded.
   772
          Charlemagne begins the Frankish expansion to the North. The
          deep woods of Holstein do however protect the Danes for several
          decades yet.
   787-1066 (circa)
          Viking Age
          Danes raid e.g England, France and Spain. The beginning of the
          Viking era is by convention dated to the raid at Northumbria
          A.D. 793 (referred to in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle that too,
          although the same source says that the first ships of the
          Danish men that sought the land of the English nation came
          A.D. 787).
   808
          (circa) The Danes defeat Slavic tribes.
          During the war the market at Haithabu is abandoned to the
          Slavic Vends. Haithabu /Hedeby/ is situated at the very same
          bay as the later town Schleswig /Slesvig, on the narrowest part
          of south Jutland, the short-cut between the Baltic Sea and the
          North Sea.
   811
          As Charlemagne extended his realm in the late 8th century he
          came to meet a united Danish army which successfully defended
          Danevirke. A Danish-Frankish border was established at the
          River Eider A.D. 811. Haithabu is regained.
          Frankish sources, for instance Annales regni Francorum against
          the year 811, gives a rather good picture of the Danish realm.
          Godfred, or perhaps a predecessor, seems to have brought the
          lands of the South- and North Danes together shortly before
          800. And to end the war between the Franks and the Danes a
          hostage was sent to Charlemagne in Aachen. That Danish hostages
          came from Southern Jutland, Zealand and Scania ("Osfrid de
          Sconaowe"). Probably also southern Norway was held by the kings
          of Denmark of that time.
   845
          Hamburg is raided and burned by Danish Vikings. As a
          consequence Arch-bishop Ansgar moves the Cathedral to Bremen.
   874
          The Danes get control of northern and eastern England.
   890-935 (circa)
          A separate kingdom of Haithabu was established by the Viking
          chieftain Olaf from Svealand. Olaf's son Gnupa was however
          killed in battle (against the Danish King Hardeknud?), and his
          kingdom vanished. King Gorm is said to have regained Haithabu
          A.D. 935.
   911
          (circa) Rollo, a Danish Viking chieftain, is granted Normandy
          as a Duchy by the Frankish king Charles the Simple.
   948
          A bishopric is established in Slesvig.
   958-986/988
          Harald Gormsson (a.k.a. "Black-tooth") unites Denmark and
          Norway as a single kingdom. Scania, Jutland and the islands
          in-between had been ruled by the same king now and then, for
          instance under King Godfred in the early 800s, but first with
          the Christianization of kings and magnates the kingdom of
          Denmark seems to have become a stabile entity. [ See also the
          web-site at the Royal Danish Embassy, Washington D.C.
          <http://www.denmarkemb.org/viking94.htm> ]
          Lars Hemmingsen writes:
          Harald boasts at the rune stone in Jellinge that he has won
          "all of Denmark" - but what this really means is unclear: There
          are some circumstantial evidence that Gorm lost Scania and
          Norway, as well as his life, in 958 and that what Harald
          accomplished was merely a re-conquest. But the standard
          explanation is that Harald held the lands from the beginning
          and that what he won of Denmark was merely the area around
          Haithabu, A.D. 983, which he had first lost to Emperor Otto II.
   965
          Harald Gormsson (a.k.a. "Blåtand" - Black-Tooth) baptized.
   983-1253
          Southern Jutland (Sønderjylland) is an integrated part of the
          Danish realm.
   1013
          The King Svend Tveskæg ("Double-beard" or "Fork-beard")
          conquers England, which remains in Danish control until the
          year 1042.
   1018-35
          Knud den Store (Canute the Great) ruled over a vast kingdom
          that included present-day Denmark, England, Norway and southern
          Sweden, and during his reign Christianity became widespread.
          After his death, the empire disintegrated.
   1022
          Bishopric in Roskilde
   1060
          King Svend Estridsen lets build a stone church for the bishop
          Egino in Dalby, close to Lund. (This church is the oldest
          remaining stone church on the Scandinavian peninsula.)
          This year the Church was re-organized with new bishoprics also
          in: Lund, Aarhus, Borglum, Ribe and Odense.
   1074
          After King Svend Estridsen's death Denmark is from time to time
          split between his sons. The Thing in Scania supports Knud ("the
          Holy") against whom the Jutes revolt in 1086 and King Knud is
          murdered.
   1080
          The Bishop in Bremen and the Bishop in Canterbury have fought
          over dominance of Denmark, and as a move in this complicated
          struggle, rich funds are donated by the king for a cathedral in
          Lund. The cathedral school is opened in 1086. The school has
          been in function ever since.
   1104
          With the first arch-bishop of Lund, Scandinavia was made a
          separate church province, no longer belonging to Hamburg.
   1137-1157
          Denmark seems to divide itself in pieces. Scania, Zealand and
          Jutland can't agree on choosing the same king and Civil War
          follows, in which King Valdemar the Great comes out on top in
          1157.
   1145
          The Lund cathedral is opened. (The church in Dalby had lost the
          competition for cathedral status.)
   1167
          Copenhagen (Havn) is founded.
   1168
          The Vendic castle Arkona on the island Rügen is captured by
          King Valdemar the Great.
   1195
          Saxo writes the history of Scandinavia.
   1201-1227
          King Valdemar II Sejr conquers Holstein with the town of
          Hamburg,which soon enough is re-captured by a united German
          army. He also conquers Pomerania, and Mecklenburg, and
          reestablishes the nation as a great power in northern Europe.
          Soon, however, a civil war between the nobles and the king
          vying for control of the country erupted.
   1202-1210
          The Scanian Law is written down. 50 years later it's also
          transcribed to runes.
   1219
          King Valdemar II Sejr conquers northern Estonia. According to
          the legend, the Danish flag "Dannebrogen" fell down from the
          sky during this mission. [ The Dannebrog is the oldest flag in
          the world still in use. All Nordic flags except the Greenland
          flag are variations of the Dannebrog. ]
   1253-1325
          Denmark's southern border had since long been guarded by troops
          under command of an Earl (Jarl), later Duke, in Schleswig
          /Slesvig in Sønderjylland. The Duchy had become also a means of
          providing for the expenses of younger royal princes. As the
          Hansa and the German Empire expanded, the Counts of Holstein,
          the Duke of Slesvig and the Hansa found a common enemy in the
          king of Denmark. The result was a long row of wars where the
          Dukes strived for independence from the Danish Crown.
          At the same time also the Arch-bishop in Lund strived for
          supremacy over the secular king, or at least for independence,
          and the nobility demanded the realm to be governed by a Senate
          (Danehof).
   1320-32
          King Christoffer II was forced to make major concessions to the
          nobles and clergy at the expense of royal power, which was also
          diminished by the influence of the German Hanseatic League.
          1326-30 King Christoffer is replaced by an under-age king with
          Count Gerhard of Holstein as regent.
          The Scanian nobility (alternatively the Thing in Lund) had in
          the beginning of the 1330s chosen the young Magnus Eriksson to
          be king also for the Scanian provinces, after his regents had
          promised to pay Count Johan of Holstein to whom Scania was
          pawned. At that time Magnus Eriksson was the under-age king of
          both Norway and Sweden.
   1332-40
          Due to the expensive but failed wars almost all rights to taxes
          and custom fees are given in pawn to the creditors of the realm
          (mainly the Counts of Holstein). The Danish Crown has no
          incomes to speak of, and no king is appointed.
   1340-75
          King Valdemar IV Atterdag succeeded in restoring royal
          authority.
   1346
          After an Estonian uprising, Denmark sells its possessions in
          Northern Estonia to the Order of Teutonic Knights.
   1360
          Valdemar IV Atterdag re-conquers Scania.
   1361
          Valdemar IV Atterdag conquers Gotland.
   1375
          The five years old Crown Prince Olof of Norway is elected King
          of Denmark, with his mother Queen Margrete of Norway as regent.
          In 1380 he becomes King of Norway too. The union between
          Denmark and Norway will remain until 1814.
   1386
          To avoid a war on the southern border, and to regain the rich
          Slesvig region, Queen Margrete I (the daughter of Valdemar IV)
          unites the Danish Duchy of Slesvig with the German County of
          Holstein by giving Slesvig as a fief to the Counts of Holstein.
          The unity between Slesvig and Holstein has remained ever since,
          although the northern part of Slesvig was split of in 1920.
          Until 1440 the dukes of Slesvig fails to agree with their kings
          over the Duchy's duties in the realm.
   1388
          Margrete, Queen-widow and mother of the late King Oluf, who had
          died in 1387, is acclaimed as "plenipotentiary lady and
          rightful warden" for Norway and Sweden.
   1389-96
          Queen Margrete of Norway and Denmark unites all the Nordic
          countries as a single kingdom, the Kalmar Union, under the
          under-age Eric of Pomerania, who is crowned in Kalmar 1397.
   1429
          Duty on goods through Öresund is introduced by King Erik of
          Pomerania. This becomes an important income for the Danish
          Crown, and creates heaps of enemies to the State of Denmark.
   1448
          The house of Oldenburg (one of the branches of Counts of
          Holstein) was established on the throne in the person of
          Christian I and has continued to rule Denmark up to the present
          day.
   1460-74
          King Christian I becomes Duke of the duchies of Slesvig (1460)
          and Holstein (1474). Holstein and Slesvig become twin duchies
          with peculiar rules for succession. In 1490-1721 both of the
          duchies are split in two or more parts, one of which is held by
          the king of Denmark.
   15th ct
          During the late 15th century male serfdom (vornedskab) was
          introduced on the islands.
   1523
          The Kalmar Union is dissolved as the Swedes revolt after the
          "Stockholm bloodbath" performed by King Christian II of
          Denmark. Denmark and Norway remain united, however.
   1534-36
          After the death of King Frederik I, the Civil "War of the
          Counts" (Grevefejden) between the rivals to throne follows. The
          parties struggled mainly over two issues: for or against
          Hanseatic influence and for or against a national Lutheran
          State Church. After 1536 the Hansa's dominance in Denmark's
          domestic politics was broken. Frederik's Lutheran son becomes
          King Christian III.
   1536
          Reformation. Denmark becomes Lutheran.
   1645
          Denmark-Norway has to cede Gotland, Jämtland, Ösel and Härjedal
          to Sweden in the Brömsebro peace after King Christian IV had
          intervened in the Thirty Years' War. Halland is ceded for 30
          years.
   1658-60
          In the peace treaty of Roskilde, Denmark-Norway cedes Skåne,
          Halland, Blekinge, Bohuslän, and Trøndelag (i.e. the district
          of Trondheim) to Sweden after a failed war against Sweden
          declared by King Frederik III the year before.
          After the peace treaty Sweden continues the war and besieges
          Copenhagen for two years. However, this results in Trøndelag
          being returned to Norway and Bornholm (after an uprising) to
          Denmark.
          A consequence of the disastrous war was that the monarchy was
          made hereditary in 1660, and royal Autocracy was introduced in
          1661. The Autocracy came to last until 1848. The high
          aristocracy had lost its influence over the government.
   1671-85
          Religious tolerance
          Catholics (1671), Jews (1684) and Calvinists (1685) were
          granted rights to perform their own worship.
   1675-79, 1700-21
          In the "war of Scania" and later in the "Great Northern War",
          Denmark tries to conquer back the territory lost in 1658 but
          without success, due to pressure from the great powers of
          Europe. Sweden's collapse after the Great Northern War does,
          however, return Denmark some of its earlier position as a
          northern power.
   1702/33
          The serfdom (vornedskab) is first abolished in 1702 (it was in
          use only on the islands), then re-invented for all of Denmark
          in 1733 under the name of stavnsbåndet - male peasants below
          the age of 36 were disallowed to move from the manor without
          consent of the landowner. (Less than 5% of the land was owned
          by peasants.)
   1721-1864
          All of the Duchy of Slesvig is ruled by the King of Denmark. In
          1773 Denmark formally obtains the whole of Slesvig in exchange
          for Oldenburg. The Danish king also becomes Duke of Holstein
          (under the German Emperor), initially only with half of the
          Duchy, but from 1773 on, Holstein is united.
   1781
          Grand reform of farming decided. Villages were split into
          separate farms, so farmers came to live closer to their land,
          more distant from their neighbors.
   1800
          Serfdom (stavnsbåndet) is again abolished. As a consequence
          land-rent is fixed and paid in money, not in work, and then
          most farms are sold to the peasants. In 1815 60% of the farmers
          owned their own land, however heavily in debt. The difference
          between farm workers and farmers increased. (The farm workers
          constituted approximately the half of Denmark's population
          in 1801.)
   April 1801
          The battle of the Roadstead of Copenhagen (Slaget på Reden).
          The British force Denmark to retreat from the Armed Neutral
          Alliance with Sweden and Russia. Admiral Nelson was in charge
          of the part of the British fleet which partook in the battle.
   September 1807
          The British under Wellington bombard Copenhagen, to make
          Denmark cede its navy. Denmark becomes a French ally.
   1813-14
          The alliance with Napoleon becomes a disaster for Denmark: the
          country goes bankrupt. In the peace treaty of Kiel, Denmark has
          to cede Norway to Sweden. Denmark also gets Swedish Pomerania
          which is traded with Prussia for Lauenburg. Iceland, Greenland,
          and the Faroe Islands remain with Denmark.
   1848-51
          After a Prussian-inspired revolt in Schleswig-Holstein, the
          first war of Slesvig ends with status quo. Denmark still
          controls the duchies of Slesvig, Holstein, and Lauenburg.
   1849
          King Fredrik VII authorized a new constitution instituting a
          representative form of government. In addition, wide ranging
          social and educational reforms took place.
          Religious freedom was enacted and the Church was declared
          independent of the State, although this independence never has
          been realized - mainly due to internal conflicts in the Church
          - The King (the Queen) has remained the head of Church who
          appoints priests, confirms hymnals, etcetera.
   1863-64
          Denmark adopts the "November Constitution" which aims to unite
          Slesvig (but not Holstein) with the Danish Kingdom and
          therefore is a violation of the peace treaty of 1851 in which
          Denmark had promised not to separate the two duchies. Due to
          this, Prussia and Austria declare war and conquer Slesvig,
          Holstein, and Lauenburg in the second war of Slesvig.
   1901
          Parliamentarism is introduced in Denmark: No government can
          rule against the majority of the parliament.
   1914-18
          Denmark remains neutral during World War I.
   1917
          Denmark sells her three Caribbean islands to the USA for 25
          million dollars (the present-day US Virgin Islands).
   1920
          The northern part of /Sønderjylland (the former duchy of
          Slesvig) is rejoined with Denmark after a referendum.
   1933
          Great social reforms were instituted, in effect founding
          Denmark's modern welfare state.
   1940
          On April 9th, Germany occupies Denmark despite Denmark having
          declared itself neutral; the Danish government gives up
          military resistance. However, the Danes retain control of their
          government and parliament, which initially remain remarkably
          intact regardless of the Nazi occupation.
   1943
          The relations between the Danish Government and the occupying
          German forces worsen rapidly. Most of the Danish Jews are
          evacuated to Sweden. Local resistance groups perform a number
          of sabotage actions during the war, and the Nazis retaliate
          with counter-terror.
   1944
          Iceland breaks away from union with Denmark and declares
          independence.
   1945
          4-5th of May: The German forces in Denmark surrender to
          Britain. The end of World War II ends the German occupation of
          Denmark. The German forces on Bornholm refuse to surrender to
          the Red Army, and Bornholm has to suffer Soviet bombardment
          before the Germans finally surrender a few days later.
   1948
          The Faroe Islands are granted autonomy within the Danish
          Kingdom.
   1949
          Denmark joins NATO as one of the founding members.
   1953
          A new constitution alters the status of Greenland from colony
          to a "county" (amt) of Denmark. Parliament changes from a
          two-chamber system to a single-chamber system. By the same
          constitutional changes, Princess Margrethe becomes heir to the
          throne.
          The Nordic Council founded.
   1972
          Denmark joins the European Community (EC) after a referendum.
   1979
          Greenland is granted home rule and starts taking over some of
          its internal affairs.
   1992
          In a referendum Denmark votes "NO" to the Maastricht treaty
          (which designs a more federalized European Union). The "NO"
          vote shakes the whole European Community.
   1993
          A new referendum on the Maastricht treaty - allowing Denmark to
          opt out on issues such as a common European currency,
          citizenship, defense policy, and police - is arranged and
          Denmark votes "YES" to that.
   Note:
          Present-day (i.e., Swedish or German) spellings for the former
          Danish/Norwegian landscapes and Danish controlled duchies have
          been used.
          
   
   
  3.3.2 The list of Danish monarchs
  
   Denmark is probably the only country in the world that can produce an
   uninterrupted list of monarchs for more than thousand years. So here
   goes:

Chochilaichus (Hugleik?)  mentioned 515
Ongendeus
(Angantyr? or Yngvin?)    mentioned in the beginning of the 8th century
Sigfred                   mentioned in the end of the 8th century
Gudfred                   died around 810, mentioned 804
Hemming                   810-812
Harald Klak               812-813
Sons of Gudfred           mentioned 813-817
Hårik I (Horik)           died 854, mentioned from 827
Hårik II (Horik)          854-around 870
Helge
Olav                      mentioned in the 890's
Gnupa (Chnob) and Gurd    mentioned 909-919
Sigtryg
Hardeknud (Hardegon)
Gorm den Gamle            died around 940
Harald I Blåtand          around 940-around 986
Svend I Tveskæg           around 986-1014
Harald II                 1014-1018
Knud I den Store          1018-1035
Hardeknud                 1035-1042
Magnus den Gode           1042-1047
Svend II Estridsen        1047-1074
Harald III Hen            1074-1080
Knud II den Hellige       1080-1086
Oluf I Hunger             1086-1095
Erik I Ejegod             1095-1103
Niels                     1104-1134
Erik II Emune             1134-1137
Erik III Lam              1137-1146
Oluf II Haraldsen         1140-1143
Svend III Grathe          1146-1157
Knud III                  1146-1151 and 1154-1157
Valdemar I den Store      1154-1182
Knud IV (VI)              1182-1202
Valdemar II Sejr          1202-1241
Erik IV Plovpenning       1241-1250
Abel                      1250-1252
Christoffer I             1252-1259
Erik V Klipping           1259-1286
Erik VI Menved            1286-1319
Christoffer II            1320-1326 and 1330-1332
Valdemar III              1326-1330
Valdemar IV Atterdag      1340-1375
Oluf III                  1376-1387
Margrethe I               1375-1412
Erik VII af Pommern       1396-1439
Christoffer III af Bayern 1440-1448
Christian (Christiern) I  1448-1481
Hans                      1481-1513
Christian (Christiern) II 1513-1523
Frederik  I               1523-1533
Christian III             1534-1559
Frederik  II              1559-1588
Christian IV              1588-1648
Frederik  III             1648-1670
Christian V               1670-1699
Frederik  IV              1699-1730
Christian VI              1730-1746
Frederik  V               1746-1766
Christian VII             1766-1808
Frederik  VI              1808-1839
Christian VIII            1839-1848
Frederik  VII             1848-1863
Christian IX              1863-1906
Frederik  VIII            1906-1912
Christian X               1912-1947
Frederik  IX              1947-1972
Margrethe II              1972-

   
   
  3.3.3 Denmark during world war II
  
   This section will probably get more material. Actually, this is one of
   the regular topics of discussion in the group. But few have yet had
   energy enough to write and propose a text for the faq.

From: Stan Brown <stbrown@nacs.net>
Subject: Yellow Stars (was Re: Denmark during WW2)
Date: Sun, 26 May 1996 12:03:02 -0400

> I also thought that Jews were required to wear stars, but that
> the King himself put on a star, as did many others, and therefore
> that the star identification system of the Nazis failed?

   On page 14 of Queen in Denmark by Anne Wolden-Ræthinge (Gyldendal,
   1989, ISBN 87-01-08622-7 and 87-01-08623-5), HM Queen Margrethe II
   says:
   
     "One of the stories one often hears about the Occupation, and which
     I persist in denying each time I hear it, is the story about
     Christian X wearing the yellow star of David as a demonstration
     during the Occupation. It is a beautiful and symbolic story, but it
     is not true. I do not mind it existing or being told, but I will
     not support a myth, even a good one, when I know it isn't true, it
     would be dishonest. But the moral behind the story is a far better
     one for Denmark than if the King had worn the star. The fact of the
     matter is that the Germans never did dare insist that Danish Jews
     wear the yellow star. This is a credit to Denmark which our country
     has cause to be proud of: I think this is an important fact to
     remember. The myth about the King wearing the star of David, well,
     I can imagine that this could have originated from a typical remark
     by a Copenhagen errand boy on his bicycle: 'If they try to enforce
     the yellow star here, the King will be the first to wear it!' -- I
     don't know whether this was the actual remark, but I imagine it
     could have been how the myth started. It is certainly a possible
     explanation I offer whenever I am asked. To me, the truth is an
     even greater honor for our country than the myth."
     



From: Henrik Ernoe <erno@wotan.ens.fr>
Subject: Re: Denmark during WW2
Date: Thu, 23 May 1996 11:14:42 +0100


> If the Germans were mere occupiers, why did
> they sanction the destruction of the Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen?

   First of all, the bombing of tivoli was a "Schalburgtage" committed by
   Danish Nazies not but the Germans, and it happenened after august 43,
   were the Danish government demissioned and the "peaceful" occupation
   and collaboration ended.
   
> But they did they effectively steal all of the Danish gold
> reserves to finance their own war effort and bankrupt the
> Danish treasury?

   The Germans did not steal the Danish gold reserves. The base for this
   story is the system with "clearing-accounts" in the National bank. The
   system worked as follows: When the German wanted to "buy" butter,
   bacon, guns, or whatever in Denmark, they paid with vouchers which the
   sellers would take to national bank to get their money. The Danish
   National bank then paid from the "clearing-account", which was then
   supposed to be repaid by the Germans, this however never happened (the
   account still amounts to several milliards in 1996).
   
   That the Germans plundered Denmark this way is true, that they stole
   the gold reserves is not!
   
   A lot of the stories are inaccurate or untrue and tend to polish the
   Danish image, which in view of the Governments acts from April 9th
   1940 to 29 August 1943 is deeply tarnished by a policy of
   collaboration with Nazi Germany.
   
   There are things to proud of in Danish WWII history but the policy of
   the government and political establishment until 43 is not one of
   them.
   
   It should never be forgotten that until 29 August 1943 the Danish
   government did all it could to hinder sabotage and other acts of
   resistance. And the greatest danger to the resistance was the Danish
   police not the Gestapo! When agents (Danes) from from the British SOE
   were parachuted into Denmark, it was the Danish police that hunted
   them down and murdered Rottböll and his comrades!
   
   What saved our honor as a nation was the acts of a few people defying
   not only the Germans but also the Danish King, government and all the
   lawful authorities.
   

[ the sections above are available at the www-page
  http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/scn/faq33.html ]