A brief chronicle is to find in the sections 7.3.3-7.3.7.

7.3.1 A chronology of important dates

829  The German bishop Ansgar introduces Christianity to Sweden.

1004 (ca)
     Olof Skötkonung was baptized, and made Christianity the official
     religion of Sweden. Several pagan kings followed him, though.

1104 With the first bishop of Lund, Scandinavia was made a separate church
     province, no longer belonging to Hamburg.

1155 Securing (conquering) of Finland for Catholicism.

1164 A separate arch-bishopric for Sweden was instituted in Uppsala. Until
     1152 the archbishop in the Scanian town Lund in Denmark had been the
     primate for all of Norden.

1187 Estonians invade and burn Sigtuna.

13th century
     The Scanian Law is written down 1210. In the 1220:ies also the Swedish
     provinces (landskap) start to write down their landskapslagar. 1240 the
     movement has reached Västergötland, and Äldre Västgötalagen is written
     down.

1226 Falu copper mine is opened.

1250 Stockholm becomes the capital, after Birka and Sigtuna, founded by
     Birger Jarl, earl of Sweden and 1250-1266 guardian for the under age
     king Valdemar.

1285 The Swedish king Birger (Ladulås) claims supremacy over Gotland.

1293 Viipuri is established at/as the eastern border of Sweden.

1306 King Birger is imprisoned by his brothers duke Valdemar and duke Erik,
     the so called Håtunaleken.

1317 King Birger imprisons his brothers, attempting to let them starve to
     death, the so called Nyköpings gästabud, but is forced to escape out of
     the country.

1319-1343
     Personal union with Norway under king Magnus Eriksson.

1332-1361
     Scania, Blekinge & Gotland ruled by the Swedish king after the Scanian
     Archbishop and magnates had elected Magnus Eriksson, the king of Sweden
     to become also king of the Scanian provinces.

1335 Slavery was abolished.

1344 St. Birgitta (1303-1373), Sweden's most important medieval saint,
     starts to write down her Heavenly Revelations and decides to start a
     convent in Vadstena. The Brigittine Order exists even today in many
     countries.

1350 The Black Death (the Plague)
     The first Swedish national law replaced the local landskapslagar.

1361 The Danish king Valdemar Atterdag conquers Gotland.

1397-1521
     The Nordic kingdoms are united as the "Kalmar Union", led by Denmark.

1477 Uppsala university founded; the oldest university in the Nordic
     countries.

1520 Stockholm blood bath.

1521 Gustav Vasa is elected regent.

1523 Gustav Vasa is elected king of Sweden.

1526 The New Testament and hymnal is printed in the Swedish language - 1541
     is the whole Bible ready.

1527 Reformation decided at the diet of Västerås. (Being able to collect
     taxes from the Church and pay off national debts had a lot to do with
     it).

1542 Nils Dacke leads a rebellion in Småland.

1561 Estonia surrenders to Sweden.

1568 King Erik is imprisoned, and 1577 poisoned.

1593 Lutheranism is confirmed by a Church meeting in Uppsala.

1594-99
     The Catholic Sigismund inherits the throne, Sweden in personal union
     with Poland.

1600 Linköping's blood bath.

1613 Sweden pays ransom for the fort at Älvsborg, where 1619 Gothenburg is
     founded.

1617 Sweden gets the Kexholm province and Ingria ("Ingermanland") in the
     peace of Stolbova with Russia.

1629 Poland cedes Livonia to Sweden in the peace of Altmark.

1632 The university in Dorpat is founded.
     Gustav II Adolf is killed in the battle of Lützen.

1640 The university in Åbo is founded.

1645 Sweden gets Gotland, Ösel (Saaremaa), Jämtland and Härjedalen from
     Denmark in the peace of Brömsebro.

1648 In the peace treaty of Westphalia, Sweden wins the German territories
     (Vorpommern, Rügen, Stettin, Wismar, and Bremen-Verden) and becomes a
     major power.

1658 The peace treaty of Roskilde gives Sweden Bohuslän and the Scanian
     provinces of Skåne, Blekinge and Halland. Bornholm is returned to
     Denmark after an uprising 1660. The Swedish territory of today is
     thereby collected.

1668 The university in Lund is founded.

1671-1675
     Nobel masters have right to sentence their employees.

1676 The battle at Lund

1679 Gotland is annected by Sweden.

1697 The Stockholm Castle ("Three Crowns") burns down.

1700-21
     The Great Northern War, with the battles at Narva 1700 and Poltava
     1709. Sweden loses most of the German and all of the Baltic
     territories. The power shifts from the king to the estates.

1742 The estates confirm the democratic forms for decisions at the village
     meeting.
     Celsius designs a thermometer.

1757 Storskifte, first reform of Swedish farming decided.

1766 The liberty of Press and "Offentlighetsprincipen" was declared as
     constitution.

1771 Scheele discovers oxygen.

1772 Gustav III performs a coup and restores absolute monarchy.

1773 Torture is abolished in Sweden.

1778 Freedom of religion for aliens.

1790-91
     Bellman publishes Fredman collections.

1792 Gustav III is assassinated at a masked ball.

1807 Enskifte, grand reform of Swedish farming decided. Villages were split
     into separate farms, so farmers came to live closer to their land, more
     distant from their neighbors.

1808-09
     The War of Finland: the whole of Finland (extended also by a part of
     the Swedish county Norrbotten) was joined to Russia. A new constitution
     is written that puts an end to autocracy. "Offentlighetsprincipen" and
     freedom of press get restored.

1810 One of Napoleon's generals, Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, is elected as the
     heir to throne. Despite this Sweden joins the British-led anti-Napoleon
     alliance. In 1818, he becomes king Carl XIV Johan.

1810-1832
     Göta Kanal is built across Sweden from Söderköping to Gothenburg.

1814-1905
     Personal-union between Norway and Sweden.

1841 The parish meetings are reformed by law. It's settled that also
     craftsmen, tradesmen and industrial workers should have right to vote
     (if they earn enough).

1842 A national compulsory public education system, "Folkskolan", is
     introduced, and is to be administrated by the parishes, followed 1843
     by law on municipal self rule.

1845 Daughters get equal rights as sons to inherit land.

1848 The first Swedish Free Church congregation and baptizing.

1853 Electric telegraph between Stockholm and Uppsala.

1856 Railroad between Örebro and Ervalla.

1858 The prohibition of religious meetings in the absence of a state church
     priest is abolished. 1860 it became allowed for Swedish citizens to
     switch religious affiliation from the State Church to certain other
     approved (Christian) Churches.

1859 Feminist pioneer Fredrika Bremer publishes Hertha.

1864 The estates refuse to live up to the promise by the king to support
     Denmark when attacked by Prussia.
     The obligation to yearly communion is abolished.

1866 The parliament is reformed. The system of the four estates is abandoned
     and a new system of two chambers is introduced. The right to vote
     remains dependent on income and gender.

1871 The parish meeting is reformed, majority decisions are enforced instead
     of the former tradition of consensus, disciplinary matters are to be
     decided by a committee.

1873-1914
     Nordic currency and postal union.

1878 The metric system is introduced.

1896 Hjalmar Branting is elected the first Social Democrat in parliament.

1901 First Nobel Prize award.
     The universal military service is organized. All men become trained for
     defense of the country.

1902 Railroad from Narvik at the Norwegian coast to Kiruna where iron ore
     mines get exploit.

1905 Norway declares itself independent of the Swedish king.

1906 Major spelling reform.

1907 Men get equal rights to vote.

1909 Strike by 300'000 Swedish workers, but no revolution.

1913 Law on public pension.

1918 A Swedish troop of 600 man intervene on Åland, attempting to mediate
     when the civil war of Finland led to Finnish troops fighting on Åland.
     The Finnish and Swedish troops leave after a German fleet had
     approached.

1919 Law on eight hours workday (six days a week).

1921 Women get rights to vote equal to men.

1923 A proposition to prohibit alcoholic beverages is narrowly defeated in a
     referendum.

1948 Count Folke Bernadotte was assassinated in Jerusalem by a Jewish
     terrorist organization (lead by Yitzhak Shamir) when mediating between
     Jews and Arabs.

1951 General right for members of the state Church to submit one's
     resignation. General freedom of religion for Swedish citizen.

1953 A Swedish computer, BESK, is for a time the fastest in the world.

1957 A referendum supports a Social Democratic proposal for mandatory
     participation in a retiring allowance scheme with minimal funds. The
     alternative was a voluntary funding system. 40 years later a mandatory
     funding system is decided.

1961 ?
     The aircraft of Dag Hammarskjöld, the UN secretary general, is shot
     down during mediating in Africa.

1971 The Riksdag becomes unicameral. The king loses his political influence
     (including. formation of the cabinet). Parliamentarism is written into
     the constitution.

1979 Referendum says nuclear power is to be liquidated.

1981 A Russian submarine runs aground in the Blekinge archipelago.

1986 The prime minister Olof Palme is assassinated Feb 28.
     April 26th nuclear radiation is discovered outside of the nuclear plant
     Forsmark to the north of Stockholm. After some time it turns out to
     come from Ukraine, but large areas of Sweden are struck, with slaughter
     of reindeers and restrictions against using wild berries and mushrooms
     for many following years.

1994 The ferry Estonia sank in Åland's sea. About 900 drowned.
     A referendum supports joining of the European Union.
     As of January 1st 1995 Sweden became a full member of the EU.



7.3.2 A list of Swedish monarchs

the late viking age:

ca  990      Erik (the victorious)
ca  995-1020 Olof Skötkonung, baptized as a Christian in 1008
ca 1019-50   Anund Jakob

competing magnates:

ca 1050-60   Emund den gamle (the old)
ca 1160      Stenkil
ca 1066-80   Halsten
ca 1080      Blotsven
ca 1080-1110 Inge the elder
ca 1110-18   Filip
ca 1118-20   Inge the younger
ca 1130      Ragnvald
ca 1135-56   Sverker the elder
ca 1158-60   Erik IX den helige (St. Eric)
1160-67 Karl VII Sverkersson
1167-96 Knut Eriksson
1196-1208 Sverker Karlsson the younger
1208-16 Erik X Knutsson
1216-22 Johan Sverkersson
1222-29 Erik XI Eriksson läspe och halte (lisp and limp)
1229-34 Knut Holmgersson den långe (the long)
1234-49 Erik XI Eriksson läspe och halte (lisp and limp)
1250-66 Birger Jarl, earl (regent) of Sweden
1250-75 Valdemar Birgersson, under age until 1266
1275-90 Magnus Birgersson Ladulås
1290-1318 Birger Magnusson, under age until 1298
1290-1317 Duke Erik Magnusson (regent)
1319-64 Magnus Eriksson, under age until 1332.
1363-89 Albrekt av Mecklenburg

the Kalmar Union:

1389-1412 Margareta (regent of the Kalmar Union)
1412-34 Erik of Pommerania (king of the Kalmar Union)
1434-36 Engelbrecht (king of Sweden)
1436-40 Karl Knutsson (king of Sweden)
1441-48 Kristoffer of Bavaria (king of the Kalmar Union)
1448-57 Karl Knutsson (regent of Sweden)
1457-64 Kristian I (king of the Kalmar Union 1448-1481)
1464    Karl Knutsson (regent of Sweden)
1464-66 Erik Axelsson (regent of Sweden)
1466-70 Karl Knutsson (regent of Sweden)
1471-97 Sten Sture the elder (regent of Sweden)
1497-1501 Hans (king of the Kalmar Union 1481-1513)
1501-03 Sten Sture the elder (regent of Sweden)
1504-11 Svante Nilsson Sture (regent of Sweden)
1512-20 Sten Sture the younger (regent of Sweden)
1520-21 Kristian II (king of the Kalmar Union 1513-1523)

Vasa:

1521-23 Gustav Eriksson Vasa (regent of Sweden)
1523-60 Gustav I Vasa (king of Sweden)
1560-68 Erik XIV [ dethroned ]
1568-92 Johan III
1592-99 Sigismund III Vasa of Poland and Sweden [ dethroned ]
1599-1600/1604 Johan, under age [ abdicated 1604 ]
1600-1611 Karl IX
1611-32 Gustav II Adolf
1632-54 Kristina, under age until 1644 [ abdicated ]

Pfalz:

1654-60 Karl X Gustav
1660-97 Karl XI, under age until 1672
1697-1718 Karl XII
1719-20 Ulrika Eleonora [ abdicated ]
1720-51 Fredrik I

Holstein-Gottorp:

1751-71 Adolf Fredrik
1771-92 Gustav III
1792-1809 Gustav IV Adolf, under age until 1796 [ dethroned ]
1809-18 Karl XIII

Bernadotte:

1818-44 Karl XIV Johan
1844-59 Oscar I
1859-72 Karl XV
1872-1907 Oscar II
1907-50 Gustaf V
1950-73 Gustaf VI
1973- Karl XVI Gustaf



7.3.3 the medieval time

500-700
Germanic expansion through Scandinavia. Svenonians ("Svear") come to play a
dominating role, and the Goths ("Götar") a subordinate role.

800-1050
Viking age. It was a prosperous period. Swedish Vikings traveled trading fur
and slave to Russia, Byzantium and all the way down to the Arab caliphate at
Baghdad. The kingdom of Svears gets a leading position, at least they get
best known abroad, its capital is in Gamla ("Old") Uppsala. Svea-Vikings
possibly inhabited also Åland and coastal areas in Finland and Norrland.

11th century
Sweden becomes Christian, and the country is united into a single kingdom.
Due to pressure from the mighty Danish kingdom, the warring landscapes of
Sweden settle into an uneasy truce and start to elect a king to rule them as
one kingdom. This kingdom was often called the "Svea kingdom", because
traditionally this was the only stable entity and the only kingdom that
foreigners had heard of. 1076 Bishop Adam of Bremen writes the history of
the bishopric of Hamburg, describing the christianization of Sweden, which
is one of our main sources to the early history of Scandinavia.

1050-1397
Sweden is ruled by kings elected by the nobility - most of the time from two
rival dynasties. The title king of the Svears did however not give much
power. Neither among the Svears nor in more distant parts of the country.
The forces of particularism were very strong during the first centuries and
often there would be two or three claimants to the throne engaged in civil
war.

This time is characterized by the power being divided on so many local
magnates assuring no individual command too much power, and becoming a
threat against the other magnates. A suitable king could well be chosen from
Götaland, perhaps because that person would find it hard to make his power
be felt in Svealand.

Formerly kings were elected by each "landsting" (that was a combined court
and law-giving meeting of the free men in a province). In 1319 the peasantry
is officially, but not in practice, again participating in an election of
king.

1152 a papal cardinal refuse to organize a separate Swedish archdiocese
tired of the quarrel between Götar and Svear, who couldn't agree on one of
the two alternatives Linköping in Östergötland or Uppsala in Uppland.

Sweden conquers the Finnish woods for Catholicism through a series of
"crusades". The plains in southern Finland of today, Åland and most of the
coast on both side of the Bothnic sea is believed to have been colonized by
Svears already. (After the first crusade 1155 Uppland was rewarded with the
archdiocese.) Finland is not yet participating in the elections of kings.

The dominance in the Baltics by the Gutar from Gotland island is competed by
the Germans, who from 1161has an agreement with the Gutar. The situation for
Götar and Svear is not improved, but Gotland gets weaker, with civil war in
the end of the 13:th century, and defeat under the Danish king Valdemar
Atterdag 1361. Swedish kings had ambitions to rule also over Gotland, but
the Gutar were not too interested.

The first one to yield such power that he could issue grants of land in both
Götaland and Svealand (showing that he had territorial power), was Knut
Eriksson (late 12:th century). In his early days this son of Erik the saint
used the title king of Götaland, but after coming out on top in a civil war
he also called himself king of Svealand and also used the titles together.
Before his days the king can be said to have wielded power only with the
consent of the local upper class.

1248 at the church meeting in Skänninge (in Östergötland), on demand from
the catholic pope, the Swedish church introduces celibacy for priests, and
the priests should now be appointed by the bishop. Earlier, priests were
elected by their parish and they married.

15th century
After 1397 Sweden and Denmark (including Finland, Norway and Iceland) were
united in the Kalmar Union under the Danish queen Margarethe. Margarethe
never held the title Queen of Sweden, but was instead appointed as
"authorized agent" (Fru och fullmäktige av Sverige). This period is
characterized by struggle between the nobility, the commons and the
queen/king.

The union was a reaction against the strong influence German merchants had
around the Baltics, illustrated by a German being elected king in Sweden in
the late 14th century, but the union gets questioned both by the nobility,
when they are discontent, and by the commons, when they experience worsening
conditions. Germans continue to play a dominating role in towns and mining.

1434-36
A rebellion led by Engelbrecht is motivated by the king of the Kalmar union
breaking a promise not to change laws or taxes without asking the people. In
January 1435 a diet appointed Engelbrecht as captain for the Swedish realm,
and as such he negotiated with the union-king that year - with poor results.
In response to demands from the country the four estates were summoned to a
new diet in Arboga 1436; which decided to continue the rebellion.
Engelbrecht was elected king. But then the two higher estates (nobility and
clergy) chose to appoint another man as captain for the realm, while the two
lower estates supported Engelbrecht. The result: Engelbrecht being
assassinated, and succeeded by his allied the high-born Karl Knutsson Bonde,
Engelbrecht's "Marsk" (commander-in-chief), who then kills the most famous
supporters of Engelbrecht.

In the following years all four estates are participating in diets.

1449-1450
King Karl is crowned to king of Norway in opposition against the Danish king
Christian, who some months earlier had been elected king of Norway. (King
Christian I was the first in the Oldenburg dynasty, and since the crown of
Norway was to be inherited, the election was regarded as illegal by many
Scandinavian magnates.) 1450 Karl Knutsson is forced by the Swedish state
council to give up the Norwegian crown, after pressure from the Union king
in Denmark. The atrocities calm down after Karl Knutsson has devasted Scania
and put the towns Vä, Helsingborg and Lund to fire.

1463-71
Swedish peasants formed armies at many occasions, fighting the smaller but
professional troops of the union-king. The peasants were supported, and
often encouraged, by the separatists among the nobility. In 1471 the
election of a separatist as regent for Sweden led to a relative calmness.

1497
The national council tried to depose the separatist regent for Sweden who
declared he had been appointed by all of the people in Sweden through the
estates at the diet. The king of the union, king Hans of Denmark, hired an
army which vanquished the regents separatist army, but the national council
soon accepts the four estates as their in practice highest authority.

1520:ies
When the Danish king Christian II is coronated in Stockholm, he executed a
hundred men, burghers and noblemen, who belonged to the separatist
Sture-party. This so called Stockholm blood bath causes again a rebellion in
Sweden which is led by Gustaf Vasa.

With the help of the Hansa-city of Lübeck, Vasa defeats the Danes and is
elected king. The Kalmar Union ceases to exist. From 1544 the crown is to be
inherited. As a consequence of the civil war in Denmark 1533-36 the German
Hansa loses its strong influence over Scandinavia.

Reformation is confirmed by the diet of Västerås 1527. Sweden becomes
Lutheran and the Church is stripped of its riches.

One of the important consequences of the reformation is the obligation for
the parishes to engage a parish clerk responsible for educating the people
in reading the Bible and/or the catechism, and for the clergy to examine the
peasants yearly in their homes. Many also learned to write.

Gustav Vasa encouraged the mining leading to increased demand on workers
which was satisfied by internal migration - not the least from Finland.



7.3.4 the consolidation of the state

1560-1660
The construction of Sweden as a Great Power of Europe. The nobility fights
for its rights and privileges.

Gustaf Vasa's son, the mentally unstable Erik XIV, becomes king 1560, and in
1561 he starts Sweden's overseas conquests by capturing northern Estonia
from the Teutonic Knights.

During Erik's regime measures against corrupt sheriffs and despotic nobility
were prioritized, and a peasant army was organized (the first time in Europe
on the side of the authorities'). In 1563 the highest nobility, the Danish
king and the Duke Johan (of Åland and parts of Finland) had started a
combined war and coup d'etat. In despise for the peasants (and discontent at
the king) the noble general refuses to use peasant infantry in battle.
(Which saved the Danish army that time.)

King Erik XIV chose a commoner as chancellor, Jöran Persson, and 1568 Erik
married a common soldier's daughter Karin Månsdotter after unsuccessfully
courting e.g Elizabeth I of England and Mary Stuart of Scotland. The Swedish
nobility acts against Erik's plans wishing to get the king closer to them
through marriage with any of their daughters. In the same year his brother
Duke Johan, who had been pardoned after the coup 1563, turns against Erik
and imprisons him. The Duke becomes king Johan III and Erik, having been
sent from one prison to another for nine years, is finally poisoned in 1577
after several death sentences by the national council, however never
executed due to fear of the public reaction.

King Johan doesn't summon the peasantry to the next diets, declares commons
to be unfit as chancellors (Erik's chancellor Jöran Persson get severely
tortured before beheading) and pay back to the nobility by reliefs and more
privileges.

Immigration encouraged
Skillful smiths were recruited from what today is Belgium; Dutchmen were
recruited to build new towns, particularly Gothenburg; Scottish men were
hired as soldiers. The western parts of the kingdom, great uninhabited woods
around the sea Vänern, were colonized by skillful farmers from Savolax in
Finland encouraged by the kings brother Duke Karl (Duke of Dalarna and other
western parts of Svealand).

The Finns from western Finland, who came to work in Svealand's towns, mines,
industries and agriculture were soon integrated.

A popular tradition represented also in school books describes the relations
between the Swedes and the migrants from eastern Finland as violent.
Established historical science and official sources give no such
indications. The Savolaxians in the woods were isolated and remained
culturally different for hundreds of years (the migration was ended at 1680
when maybe 10'000 Finns had moved to the woods of western Svealand). The
annals from the courts give the impression of the Finns living in peaceful
co-existence with the Swedish peasants.

When the situation had settled after the Thirty Years' War Sweden's
territories were bigger than ever later or before. Inside the new realm
people came to move between the different parts. A policy of swedifying hit
the new provinces, maybe most in Scandinavia, including founding
universities and change of priests and some noble men. The year 1682 the
king decided that Finns had to learn Swedish or to return to Finland. This
official policy was however impossible to enforce in the distant woods, but
has remained until recent days.

1590-95
Sweden fights a smaller war with Russia that ends with the peace of Teusina
and the recognition of Sweden's right to northern Estonia.

1596-99
Civil war between king Sigismund of Poland and Sweden and his uncle, Duke
Karl. Most nobility supported the king, but Sigismund is kicked out, and the
Duke becomes king Karl IX. (Appointed by the estates 1600 although the
under-age crown prince Johan, son of king Johan III, rightfully stood closer
to the throne. Prince Johan abdicated 1604.) The brief personal union with
Poland is over. King Karl follows up on Erik's anti-feudal policy, while his
son Gustav II Adolf instead increase the privileges of the nobility for
instance by monopoly to army- and state-offices.

1630-48
Gustav II Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus) interferes in the Thirty Years' War
(1616-48) and Swedish troops fight in Russia, Poland, Austria and Germany.
The "Lion of the North" achieves legendary status as the defender of
Protestants, he receives crushing victories but his appetite for conquest
grows and eventually the king is killed in the battle of Lützen, 1632, after
which the war fortunes waded back and forth for the following 16 years.
Gustav's daughter Christina becomes queen; as she is still under age until
1644 the country is led by Sweden's perhaps most famous statesman Axel
Oxenstierna.

The year 1638 Sweden's American colony, "New Sweden" (in present day
Delaware) is founded and settled by Swedish and Finnish pioneers. The colony
remains in Swedish hands only for 17 years, and is lost to the Dutch.

1644-54
The reign of queen Christina, the daughter of Gustav II Adolf, was at the
same time one of favoring arts, culture, science and philosophy, and on the
other hand a period of continued expensive wars on the continent, which had
ruined Sweden's economy by raising hundreds of new families into nobility
who were exempted from taxation. This was more or less made undone by her
followers, her cousin king Karl X and his son Karl XI, in the second half of
the century.

The year 1654 the queen converts to Catholicism and gives up the crown. The
conversion of the daughter of the greatest enemy of Catholicism was a
brilliant propaganda victory for the Catholic counter-reformation. She
spends the rest of her life in Rome.

1675-79
Denmark declares war. King Karl XI, who newly have came to age, discovers
the great fleet and the state finances being ruined. Scania is taken back by
the Danes, then again conquered by the Swedes. The diet 1680 makes the state
council (representing the highest nobility), which was governing when the
king was under age, personally responsible for the bad state finances. The
diet also makes the king independent of the state council, and the diet also
accepted to hand over its lawgiving power to the king. The king Karl XI used
his dictatorship also for radical reforms of the state administration, the
Army and the education of the commoners. On later diets the nobility was
(collectively) forced to give back some of the land which had been given
them as reward for services to the State.

1680-1720
Successive incorporation of the Scanian provinces in the Swedish national
state. 1680 the province Blekinge is declared incorporated in Sweden in
connection with the construction of a navy base. 1682/83 the Scanian civil
and clerical laws were replaced by Swedish laws. 1693 Halland is
incorporated in Sweden.

1700-21
The Great Northern War. Sweden is attacked by an alliance of Denmark, Poland
and Russia. The young king Karl XII invades Denmark forcing it to accept a
separate peace. He then turns toward Russia, lands in Estonia with 10 000
men and achieves a glorious victory in the battle of Narva against a three
times larger Russian army.

With Russia and Denmark beaten, Karl XII ignores all suggestions of
negotiating peace and attacks Poland. This gives Peter I of Russia time to
raise a new army and to start reconquering the Swedish territories. Karl XII
eventually succeeds in subduing Poland, and starts a new campaign against
Russia heading for Moscow. The troops that were planned to come to aid the
main army, however, never manage to show up, and Karl is forced to turn
south to Ukraine because of problems with supply. There he suffers a
crushing defeat in the battle of Poltava June 28th 1709 and most of the
Swedish army surrenders while Karl XII manages to escape with a thousand men
to Turkey. He spent several years there trying to form a new alliance
against Russia.

With Finland occupied by Russians, most of the Baltic provinces lost and
Sweden itself threatened by a Russian invasion, the estates decide 1714 that
a peace is necessary, but since the king was still in Turkey a messenger was
sent there to inform that Sweden would accept any peace terms given unless
the king soon returns to Sweden. Karl XII reacts immediately, rides through
the whole Europe with only one man accompanying him in 15 days. After the
king had returned, all talk of peace was banned. In 1716 he still manages to
raise an army of 40 000 men, and attacks Norway in 1718.

Karl XII gets killed 1718 while laying siege to Fredrikshald in Norway. To
this date, it isn't known whether the bullet came from the Norwegian or
Swedish side. Whether he was assassinated or not, his death put a welcome
end to the Swedish campaigns and the exhausted nation could eventually
achieve peace.

Peace treaties with Hanover, Prussia, and Denmark leave Sweden only
Stralsund, Rügen and parts of Vorpommern of its former "German territories".
The most severe of the peace treaties is, however, the one with Russia
signed in Nystad in 1721. Sweden loses all its Baltic territories, the
southeastern part of Finland, and ultimately its status as a major power.



7.3.5 toward democracy

1718-72
The so called Age of Freedom. Political power shifts from the king to the
estates. (With the new constitution the incorporation of Scania and other
conquered provinces is completed.)

A two-party system develops, and Arvid Horn, born in Finland and one of king
Karl XII's best militaries and administrators, became the most well-known
prime minister, totally out-shining the king Fredrik I who actually came on
the throne as the consort of the abdicated queen. During the period
1720-1738 Arvid Horn pilots Sweden between Russian and French conflicts, but
resigns finally accused for weakness and exaggerated fear for wars. His
party gets the nickname the "Nightcaps" opposed by the pride "Hats."

In the country the parish meetings are now established as deciding
authority, electing priests, organizing common work and poor relief, and
stating moral and juridical sentences (the latter without formal right). In
1742 the estates confirm the democratic forms for decisions at the village
meeting. The reason is unclear. The institution had worked well for many
hundreds of years. Maybe the lords in the new more feudal southern provinces
made problems, maybe the increase of crofters and impecunious caused
tension.

Year 1766 the censure of printed matters is abolished. The campaign is led
by the priest Anders Chydenius from Finland. The liberty of Press was
declared as constitution, including documents of the state administration
with few exceptions made publicly available, the "Offentlighetsprincipen".

1741-43
"The War of the Hats". The French-minded "Hat party" advocating aggressive
foreign politics became a majority in the Riksdag and declares war on
Russia. The war goes miserably and Finland is occupied by Russia. In the
peace treaty of Turku, Russia however agrees to gaining only fairly minor
territories in eastern Finland because the Swedish estates agree to having
Russian-approved prince-bishop Adolf Fredrik of Lübeck to enter the Swedish
throne.

1772-1809
Gustav III performs a coup 1772 and restores absolute monarchy; the
beginning of the "Gustavian era". Gustav's rule is authoritarian and freedom
of speech is limited, but in the spirit of "enlightened autocracy" he pushes
through many important reforms that the estates had been unable to decide on
during the Age of Freedom. Swedish economy strengthens, laws are made more
humane, new towns and roads are built, the navy is reformed and arts are
favored.

1788-90
Gustav's war against Russia. Sweden attacks Russia hoping to reconquer
eastern parts of Finland and Ingria ("Ingermanland"). The troops are poorly
motivated, the war goes badly, a rebellion known as Anjala-alliance rises
among the Finnish officers and Gustav has to stop the Russian campaign.
Meanwhile, Denmark attacks Sweden, but finds England and Prussia opposing
all military actions in the Danish straits, and is forced to accept a truce.
In June 1789 the war in the eastern front is continued, but with no
significant advance on land and several defeats on sea. However, on July 9th
1790 in Svensksund on the Finnish coast, the Swedish navy achieves a
glorious victory in the largest naval battle ever fought on the Baltic sea.
After this, Russia accepts a peace offered by Sweden but the peace involves
no ceding of territories.

Year 1792 Gustav attends a masked ball in Stockholm's opera despite the
several warnings about conspirators planning an assassination. Around
midnight, he is mortally wounded by a certain J.J.Anckarström, and dies a
couple of weeks later. Duke Charles becomes a regent while the young crown
prince Gustav Adolf is under age.

1792-1809

Russia had agreed in the treaty of Tilsit to pressure Sweden to join the
Napoleonic anti-British trade blockade, but Sweden refuses to listen to the
Russian ultimatums and scare-tactics and remains opposed to Napoleon.
Eventually, when all diplomatic means have failed, Russia attacks Finland
1808. Despite brief victories, the war goes badly for Sweden and by the
spring of 1809 the Finnish troops had surrendered, the main army had
retreated to Sweden and in the peace treaty of Fredrikshamn September 1809
the whole of Finland was joined to Russia. With the loss of Finland it is
made evident that the strength of the Swedish army was far more depending on
soldiers from Finland than her 20% share of the population would suggest.

For the defense of Sweden's territories an extra conscription for an extra
army was made among males below the age of 26 years. Unfortunately their
training was far too brief, and then at the fronts in the south and the west
they were left with deficient support, why many died from hunger and
freezing. Because of the disastrous war Gustav IV Adolf loses power and a
new constitution is written that puts an end to Gustavian autocracy.

The constitution was signed June 6th 1809 by duke Charles, again regent
after the king had been dethroned. Duke Charles is elected king, and the
Danish prince Christian August, who led the Norwegian government and army,
was elected to crown prince of Sweden - obviously with a Nordic union
planned, but the Danish king Frederik VI opposed this idea, unless he
himself was elected.

May 1810 the Swedish crown prince dies unexpectedly; his big brother accepts
to succeed him, but suddenly a French Marshall Jean Baptiste Bernadotte
announces his candidacy, and in solely ten days the state council, the king
and the estates change their minds. The election is unanimous.

1814-1905
In return for its anti-Napoleonic stance, Sweden receives Norway in the
treaty of Vienna, and the two countries are united in a personal union, with
Sweden occupying a leading position.

During this period Sweden develops from a poor agrarian country, to a less
poor agrarian country - and then industrialism begins. The old villages are
divided, each farm get its fields collected; the democratic village meeting
loses its function when each farm has its own fences. New methods and crops
(potatoes!) are introduced by farmers now independent of the conservative
neighbors' opinion. The life expectancy rise - as does the number of
crofters and vagrants.

In the beginning of the 19th century the vodka consumption is the highest
ever, estimated to 24 liters 100% pure alcohol per inhabitant. Paradoxally
the slightly improved living conditions, as indicated by longer life
expectancy, lead to a new kind of misery with a growing number of peasants
without property. The crofters, farm-hands etc form a rural proletariat
which grows fast while becoming relatively all more impoverished. As a
reaction Social-purity ideas grow, leading among other things to reforms of
the mandatory schools, of the political representation and of the municipal
responsibilities for poor. 1860 it becomes prohibited for ordinary citizens
to make their own vodka.

In 1831 the newspaper Aftonbladet is founded, important because of it's
struggle to increase the freedom of the press. The king, Karl XIV Johan, at
the time had the right to retract permissions to publish newspapers. When
Aftonbladet criticized the king, he retracted the publish rights - but the
paper immediately reappeared as "The Second Aftonbladet", "The Third
Aftonbladet" and all the way to the "28th Aftonbladet".

1850-90
About one million Swedes moved to America during this period, but the
emigration slowed after 1900 because of improved conditions of living and
increased industrialization. Norway, industrialized before Sweden, was an
enticements on poor Swedes who couldn't afford the fare to America.

1845-1923
Women get equal rights in society

From 1845 daughters inherit as much land as their male siblings. (Until then
the sons had got twice as much.)

In 1858 unmarried women get right to dispose own incomes and possessions and
also to run enterprises, and come of age at 25 years (including right to
vote at the parish meeting in case they earn enough).

Unmarried women get right to state employment in the 1860:ies. Higher
education for women is organized in some towns.

In 1874 married women get right to dispose their income.

As late as 1921 married women get total right to dispose their own
possessions and act on their own judicial responsibility, and also rights to
vote in parliamentary elections. Finally 1923 also the right to higher
positions in the state administrations.

1880:ies
The Scandinavian democratic traditions develop in the working class -
initially in the free Churches, the temperance movement (IOGT was
established 1879) and the workers unions which all grow to strong democratic
forces. Education extension was an important part of their work. Debates and
proclamations are made, from the 1870:ies public parades are organized to
express the will of the people.

The Social Democratic party is founded 1889.

20th century
Sweden manages to stay out of both World Wars, achieves a high standard of
living and becomes an urbanized welfare state.

The parishes are merged to municipalities and then merged again to even
bigger municipalities, and then again.

Until 1917 the governments are mostly Conservative, 1917-1926 Social
Democrats form the Cabinet, sometimes in coalition with Liberals. 1932 the
Social Democrats return to the Cabinet, and except for a few months the
summer 1936 they remain at power until 1976.

1900-14
The union with Norway is ceased without violence, and almost without
threats.

The workers unions organize several massive strikes, frightening the upper
class. The proposal to equal votes for men was made by a conservative
cabinet which feared a revolution as the alternative.



7.3.7 social security

1945-1960
During the 1940'ies the agrarian proletarians are transformed to tenant
farmers, and house maids which now have gotten regulated working hours
become a very rare sight. The Social Democrats continue to dominate the
society, in the parliament in cooperation with the Agrarians when
neccessary. The industry expands. People leave the countryside for the
towns. Sick insurance, pensions, maternal allowance and yearly vacations are
expanded. The urbanization leads to a new kind of social misery with
shortage of housing and "wild" adolescent gangs in the towns. Immigrants are
welcomed by the industries: Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Finland-Swedes
and Finns.

1960-1980
Women participate in the caring for children and elderly as employees by the
municipalities. Taxes rise. A surge of immigrants are engaged in the
industries. Vacations get limited to not less than 5 weeks yearly. 40 hours
working week is enforced. Strong laws against arbitrary sacking of workers
are decided and the unions get right to participate in board meetings for
companies.

The educational system is made uniform with 10 years of mandatory
theoretical school with minimized freedom to choose subjects followed by 3
years of specializing ("Gymnasium"). Matriculation examination is abolished,
as are apprentices. All secondary schools give access to higher studies, the
mark system is debated and changed.

The king loses the last executive power. Princesses get equal rights with
princes to inherit the throne.

Swedish politicians tend to start their careers in younger years, before
having accomplished in any profession (Olof Palme is one of the first
examples), and the reduced number of municipal politicians contribute to a
growing alienation between politicians and the electorate.

The Swedish Social Democratic governments are eager to act in international
politics. Preferably on the "anti-imperialist" side against the United
States - and sometimes against the Soviet Union. Olof Palme belonged to the
Swedes who were strongly engaged against the Vietnam war, which led to the
US ambassador leaving Sweden for some years.

In Sweden communists were hunted in the unions and among the employees in
governmental institutions (as hospitals!). In the 1970:ies Jan Guillou, an
investigating journalist at a left-wing periodical, was imprisoned for
revealing the close cooperation between the Social Democratic party and a
secret organization registering people with leftist opinions threatening the
society. Jan Guillou became some 15 years later Sweden's most famous novel
writer with his series about the super-hero baron Carl G Hamilton in the
Swedish secret service.

In elections to the parliament 1973 the left block and the anti-Socialist
block got 175 seats each. Olof Palme remained as prime minister. Many laws
were decided after drawing of lots. The number of seats is made unequal.

1976-1994
The political majority in the parliament changes almost every 6:th year.

Waves of refugees arrive but fail to find employment.

Plans to force companies to give shares to the workers unions every year are
discussed, decided and abandoned.

The defense forces are successively reduced.

In 1976 the leader for the Center party, Thorbjörn Fälldin, becomes the
first non-Social Democratic prime minister since 1936 after an intense
campaign in favor of environment protection and against nuclear power. In a
referendum 1979 between three proposals to close the thirteen nuclear power
plants the Social Democratic version wins a relative majority and is
interpreted as use of all nuclear power is to be liquidated in thirty years.

In the autumn 1981 a Russian submarine runs a-ground in what the military
calls inner security zone of the navy base area in the Blekinge archipelago.
After half a day an inhabitant on the island informs the military about the
unexpected guest. A Russian navy gathers at the territorial border, but
leaves after the Swedish prime minister Thorbjörn Fälldin publicly declared
he had ordered the Swedish defense forces to use all means against further
intruders on the sea or in the air. The Russians denied accusations of
having brought atomic weapons to Sweden, as the US navy always had done when
they had come on (announced) visits. After this perturbing episode the
Swedish navy hunted Russian mini- and macro-submarines intensely for the
following ten years. Then it turned out that some, most or all of the hunted
objects had been minks.

Big devaluations solve some problems and cause other. In the 1980's a lot of
Swedish industrial profits are gambled away on continental real estates.

February 28th 1986, the Social Democratic prime minister Olof Palme, who had
dominated Swedish politics in the 70's and 80's, is assassinated while
returning from movies. A political heir of Tage Erlander (another
influential Swedish prime minister, in power 1946-69), he had an
international reputation as an architect of the Swedish welfare model and an
outspoken advocate of disarmament. He was the first Swedish leader to be
killed since king Gustav III. Despite feverish and almost tragicomic
investigations, the motive and the killer still remain unknown.

At the beginning of the 1990:ies the employment drops drastically, as does
the value of the currency, and the state budget deficit explodes. Subsidies
are diminished for sick insurance, maternal and paternal leave, unemployment
insurance... The bad times result in some changes on higher positions in the
banks and industries, and it turns out that their boards (also state owned
banks and companies) have granted the management fabulous pensions. The
Social Democrats have propagandized much against the Bildt cabinet policy,
populistically claiming it to strike hard against the weakest among the
people. The people got surprised when the Social Democrats, after the
election of 1994 back at power, in the parliament do much harder cuts in the
social security system.

The ferry Estonia en route between Tallin and Stockholm with over a thousand
people on-board sank into the icy Baltic September 28th 1994; only circa 130
were saved. Of the drowned, the vast majority were Swedes, and the disaster
shook the whole nation.

Latest news
In 1996 The Social Democratic party elected a new chairman, Göran Persson,
namesake to the chancellor of Erik XIV, who becomes prime minister and the
sixth leader of the party in 107 years. Persson's supporters have acted
against Mona Sahlin, proposed by the retiring Ingvar Carlsson, spreading
(true) rumors about her bad capability to take care of her own economy, and
her purchase of diapers and chocolate with a government credit card. Mona
Sahlin is made impossible and leaves the political life. Göran Persson is
caught shop-lifting chocolate, and the former minister of Justice (in mr
Bildt's cabinet) is forgiven purchase of shoes and dresses with her
government credit card. The strongest criticism comes from Per Uncle,
another former minister of mr Bildt's, who turns out to be the one the
prosecutor finds his greatest interest in.

Several municipal politicians and managers leave their positions after
having been too self-indulgent with municipal credit cards on night clubs,
brothels and holiday trips. The unveiling of this habit was introduced by a
Scanian radio journalist, Janne Svensson, who soon got employed as secretary
for the Social Democratic mayor of Malmö.

The former leader for the (Social) Liberal party leads an "independent"
commission investigating espionage on a private TV station where a reporter
had unveiled embarrassing facts about HSB, a national organization for
housing societies, not without ties to the Social Democratic party. The
espionage is ordered by the manager for a public relation firm with close
ties to the Social Democratic party, but the commission declares that HSB
could not be shown to have aimed at espionage - only at a vicious slander
campaign. The HSB manager, who over a bottle of whiskey had commissioned the
PR-firm manager, should not have acted on behalf of HSB.
- The commission worked on the behalf of HSB.

The European Union, which Sweden entered 1995, is among many perceived as
the greatest threat against the Swedish democracy (except for wars).

The alienation between the electorate and the elected becomes worse.

Some parts © 2009 Advameg, Inc.