OA HISTORICAL REVIEW PROGRAM RELEASE IN9
A COMPARISON OF US AND SOVIET PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER
NOTj
inr
PART WIT
PERMISSION OF
CEhTTB^
AGENCY
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
-1-
A COMPARISON OF US AND SOVIET PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER
CIA/KB KK2
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY Office of Research and Reports
This report presents comparative data on the number of college graduates in the US and the USSR,reakdown by field of study for those employed in the civilian labor force. It also presents an assessment of tne engineering manpower resources of the two countries, inistinction Is drawnollege graduates who majored in engineering,ll persons employed as engineers regardless of their educational background. Tne major purpose of this report is to illustrate tbe importance of this distinction in any comparative assessment of the professional manpower resources of the US and the USSR.
The data ln this report relate in goneral to The census of population conducted by the USSR in9 provided Information about professional manpower that Is not available in similar detail for any other period. For purposes of comparison, US data9 were used, even though more recent figures werein unpublished fore. The available datandicate that although the size of the professional manpower pool has increased in both countries, the patterns of employment prevailing9 have not changed significantly.
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CONTENTS
Page
Summary and
I. Introduction
II. College-Graduate Manpower
the Population, the Labor Force,
and the Armed
the Civilian Labor Force, by Major Field
of
and Technical
and Life
a. Agriculture and
d. health Fields
Other Fields
of College-Graduate Manpower
Between Occupation
and Field of
of College Graduates oa Managers
and
III. Engineering
Appendixes
Appendix A. Definitions and Problems of Comparability .
Appendix B. Sources and Methodology fornd 2
and Figure
Appendix C. Fields of Study Offered in Higher Educational
Institutions of the US and the
Appendix D. Source
Tables
Page
Graduates In tbe Population and Labor Force
of tbe US and tbe9 -
Graduates In the Civilian Labor Force
of the US and the USSR, by Field of9
College Graduates in tbe Civilian Labor Force _
of the US, by Field of Study and3
k. Employment in Selected Managerial Occupations
in the USSR,9
Soviet Comparison of College-Graduate Engineers
Employed in the US and the USSR, Selected Years,
I9X0 and
of Estimates of College Graduates Employed
in the Civilian Labor Force of the US In9
of Estimates of College Graduates Employed
in the Civilian Labor Force of the USSR,
December 26
Charts
Figure 1. US and USSR: College Graduates io theand Labor9
Figure 2. US and USSR: College Graduates in theand Labor Force, by9
Figure 3. Engineering Manpower and Its Employment in the
Civilian Labor Force of the US,
- vi -
A COMPAKISOU OF US ASD SOVIET PROFESSIONALEK
Summary and Concilia iona
The professional manpower resources of the US and the USSR differ sharply as to size, composition, and employment. c mostyear for which comparable data areherecollege graduates ia the US andillion in the USSR. Aboutercent of the employed graduates in the US had specialized inand technical fields or education, whereas the number of suchin the USSR amounted to almostercent of the total. In the USSR, therefore, because very few graduates were trained in the liberal arts and the humanities, many technically trained personnel foundin managerial and administrative positions. Thus, in the US, about three-fourths of the engineering graduates end up as engineers, but in the USSR only about one-half do so. In the US, only about 4of the total number of male college graduates arc members of the armed forces; in the USSR, the figure isercent. The relativeof US and Soviet college graduates and their utilization in the labor forces of the two countries are summarized in the accompanying chart. Figure 1.
Figure 1
US and USSR
COLLEGE GRADUATES IN THE POPULATION AND LABOR FORCE
IN THOUSANDS
I. Introduction
During the pout decade, increasing attention bao been focused on the growing disparity between tho numbers of college graduates trained in certain specialties in the US and in the USSR. Statisticalhave been used to dramatize existing or predicted shortages in the USin engineering and medicine, for exampleas well as to Illustrate the relatively greater emphasis In the USSR on education for science and technology.
Durings,ngineers were graduated from Soviet colleges butrom US colleges. 1 tbe USSR surpassed the US in tbe number of engineers graduated, and since then the difference has been growing. S colleges0 first-level (bachelors) degrees ln engineering, and the USSR 0 the US figure had declinedut the Soviet figure had Increased.
Tne relative site of toe classes currently enrolled in engineering schools in the US and the USSR indicates that the difference between the numbers of graduations will become even wider over the next several years. 7reshman enrollments In engineering schools declined in the US00 but increased in the USSRo. 2/
The US Bureau of Labor Statistics has estimated that an average0 engineering graduates will be needed annually to meet the nation's projected requirements durings. }J Theseare greater than tbe expected supplybased on current trends in enrollments and are considerably below the supply of engineering graduates ln the USSR that apparently has been projected by the Soviet planners. Considering the size of the current freshman class ln Soviet engineering schools, the number of engineering graduations probably willy the academic. Thus, even if the projected requirements for the US are met, the statistical comparisons of engineering manpower will continue to be overwhelmingly in favor of the USSR durings.
In order to assess tbe significance of these statistics, lt is necessary to understand that engineering graduates are used moreIn managerial and administrative positions ln the USSR than in the US. Because of its utilitarian educational policies, the USSR has no colicgen that offer general education programs such as are
" For eeriully numbered source references, see Appendix D.
usually provided ln US colleges.esult, Soviet college graduates consist almost exclusively of specialists, whereas US college graduates include large numbera of generalists as well as specialists.
TT. College-Graduate Manpower
A. In the Population, the Labor Force, and the Armed Forces
here were more than twice as many college graduates in the US as in theillion comparedillion* (see Aboutercent of the graduates in the US andercent of those in the USSR were in the labor force. The percentage was higher in the USSRarger proportion of Soviet than US women who completed college were in the labor force. The proportion of male college graduates in the labor force of both countries, on the other hand, was estimated to be about the same (see the accompanying chart, In the USSR, however, aboutorcent of the male
Table 1
College Graduates in the Population and Labor Force of the US and tbe USSR9
Thousand Persons
college graduates
the labor force
forces
labor force
in the labor force
For sources and methodology, see Appendix B.
* ? these figuresillion for the USillion for the* Following on p. 5*
graduotco were in tbe armed forceo compared with onlyercent in the US. Thus, in spite of the much higher rote of Labor force participation among Soviet female college graduates, the number employed in taa civilian economy of the3 million) also was more than twice the number in the0 million).
In relation to total military manpower the percentage ofgraduates ln the armed forces of the USSR9 was only slightly
- 5
higher than ln the US. Thus, ofillion men reported to be In the Soviet armed forces7orercent) were college graduates, whereas for the same year, ofillion men in the US armed forces,ere college graduates/ However, the effect of this military use of college-graduate manpower on the available supply of mole college graduates for the civilian economy was far greater in the USSR than ln the US. The college graduates in the armed forces of the USSR represented aboutercent of all the male college graduates ln the nation, whereas those in the US armed forces representedorcent of all male graduates.
B. In the Civilian Labor Force, by Major Field of Study
ollege graduates who had majored ln scientific and technical fields (engineering, science, agriculture and forestry, and tbe health fields) represented about one-third of all employed graduates In the US but more than one-half of those in the USSR (sco. In contrast, those vho had majored in the social sciences, the human!-ties and arts, business, and law represented about one-half of all employed graduates In the US but only one-eighth of those in the USSR.
1. Scientific and Technical Fields
Itecauso of differences in classification, the Sovietfor the scientific and technical fields probably should be adjusted upward by. Science-teaching majors,n the USSRere classified underIn Soviet data but under "Sciences" in US data.** With this adjustment tbe total number of employed college graduates who majored in scientific and technical fields is estimated toillion for the USillion for the
The number of graduate engineers employed in the civilian economy of the US, orercent of all employed college graduateo, and ln the, or 30 Tbe USSR estimate includes graduates in certain physical
ollows on p. 7-
** See Appendix C. Sicholaa DeWltt has estimatedfillion persons who graduatedoviet institution of higher education (vysshoye uchebnoye89 were science majors in pedagogical vuzes. jj Becauseillion graduates of vuzes were employedhe number of science-teaching majorn who were employed probably was.
Tabic 2
College Graduates la the Civilian Labor Force of the US and the USSR, by Field of Study9
thousand Persons
Field of Study
b/
and technical
Physical and life sciences Agriculture and forestry Health fields
Business, economics, and law Other
sciences (except econcalcs) Humanities and arts Miscellaneous fields c/
.
For sources and methodology, see Appendix B.
for differences in classification, especially the"physical and life sciences." For modifications andof the data, see the appropriate sections in the text.
journalism, library science, Boclal work, homethend other fields not elsewhere clascified.
sciences* who are not Included ln the US estimate but excludeshoae training is analogous to that of industrial engineers
Cartography, geochemistry, geodesy, geology, hydrography,meteorology. In addition, architecture is classified underIn the USSR buteparate field ln the US (see Appendix Although engineer-economists generally are trained inin the USSR,aos if icatlon as economists ratherengineers In published statistics on employed graduates froaindicatedomparison of the specialties inithcontinued on p. 8]
who are Included in the US The net effect of these classification differences is an overstatement of the USSR estimate, in relation to tho US estimate, of probably*
b. Physical and Life Sciences
A comparison of the number of persons who majored in the physical and life sciences (including mathematics) requires scene major adjustments of the estimates shown in Table 2. As noted above, the USSR classifies science-teaching majors under "Education" and certain physical oclences under "Engineering." In relation to the US estimate of the number who majored in the physical and life sciences therefore, the USSR estirate shown ins understated by. After adjustments the estimates indicate that, orercent, of all graduates had majored in the physical and life sciences in the US and, orercent. In the USSR.
C. Agriculture and Forestry
The Inclusion of veterinary medicine under health fields in the US but under agriculture ln tbe USSR reduces slightly the comparability of the estimatea of college-graduate manpower for this category. The addition of0ould raise the US estimate, or approximately the same as the USSR estimate.
d. Health Fields
Ofmployed graduates who majored in health fields in tho USSR, or more thanercent, were trained as physicians. The remainingercent majored in physical culture or pharmacy. In the US, on the other hand, less than half were trained as physicians.** In addition to physicians, graduates in health fields in the US Include persons who bad majored in dentistry, medical technology, nursing, osteopathy, optometry,
of employed specialists appearing ln On the other hand, as noted by DeWltt,ngineer-economists apparently are included withn statistics relating to annual graduations from Soviot vuzes.
" DeWitt has estimated that, out of all those graduating in the USSR89 (the number of which exceeds the number ofgraduates,ajored in the physical sciences as defined ln the US but classified as engineering in the USSR and that0 majored In engineering* See Appendix D.
pharmacy, podiatry, public health, and various other fields allied to the medical profession. In the USSB, some of theseuch as dentistry, medical technology, and nursingare offered onlyemlprofesBional school (tekhnikura).* Many of these specialties are nonexistent in the USSB, however, and the types of servicesare provided by physicians.
In the USSR the category "Education" includes all graduates who majored in one of the specialized fields as listed under "Special-tiee ln Pedagogical and Library Institutes" in Appendix B. Included among them, therefore, would be graduates who majored in the physical and life sciences specifically to teach those subjects, aa well as majors in library science and "cultural education." In the US, as noted above, teachers with degrees in biology or the physical sciences are classified ln the field of their subject matter rather then in education. Moreover, library science and those fields of study ln the US analogous to "cultural education" in the USSRsuch as religion and social workare not included in the category "Education" in the US as they are in the USSR. The estimates shown in Tableherefore, overstate the number of education majors in the USSR in relation to the number in the US. The amount of overstatement, however, cannot be determined from the available data.
Fields
The number of employed graduates in the USSR9 who majored in business, law, the social sciences, and the humanities and arts is estimated atr onlyercent of all graduates, compared withillion, or almostercent, in the US. The neglect of college training in these general fields in the USSR, in contrast to the heavy emphasis on these fields in the US,undamental distinction between the college-graduate manpowerof the two countries. In placeeneral education, as the term is generally used in the US, the USSR has trained its high-level manpower almost exclusively in specialized fields. The engineer is the Soviet ideal of the properly educated industrial administrator, whereas the person with the rounded background in college is prominent in the administration of the US economy, lji/ In both countries the avuilable college-graduate manpower resources, regardless of formal training, represent the principal source of high-level manpower not
* Although the USSR trains dentists only in its tekhnikums, it also trains stomatologists (physicians specializing in dentistry) in its medical colleges- 0 stomatologists were Included amonghysicians in the USSR
only for worklog-level positions in the specialized fields but also for leadership and administrative direction. The positions actually held by tbe employed college graduates of the US and the USSR are discussed belov.
C. Employment of Coliege-Graduate Manpower
The term employment as used in this report refers to theactually held by college graduates as indicated by their Thisimited approach to the problem of utilization because it illustrates only the jobs in vhlch college graduates are| used,reference to the functions that are performed on these jobs. It does not take into account, moreover, how well they are used or how their time ia allocated among the various duties connected with their -Jobs. This approach, nevertheless,eneral evaluation of the contribution of college-graduate manpower to the econony. An over-all evaluation of the relative degree of utilization of college-graduate manpower in the two countries wouldost ofconsiderations and is beyond the scope of this report."
1. Relationship Between Occupation and Field of Study
For various reasens, the Job title heldollege graduate may not correspond to the title of the field of study ln which he majored while in college. This lack of correspondence does not mean necessarily that the graduate has abandoned his training or tbat he Is employed ln an occupation that does not require college training. For the most part, in both the US and the USSR it reflects the numerous Job opportunities available to the graduateirst at the working level and later at the management levelduring his working life. An additional reason in the US is that in college study as well as ln later work there ore opportunities for generallsts as well as specialists.
The diverse backgrounds of business executives and public officials in the US may be illustrated by citing tbeop executives surveyed by Fortunend the professional backgrounds of the members of the Senate and House of Representatives Ofollege graduates among the top executives,ercent had majored in liberal arts,ercent
iscussion of "good utilization" of educated specialists may be foundtudy by Deel Wo Ifie, Director of the Commission on Human Resourcea and AdvancedeWItt, in his comparison of college graduates In the US and the USSR, discusses utilization with reference to the "locus" of employmenthat ls, the distribution of college graduates among the various branches of the economy, such as industry and
-
Id science and engineering, and the remainingercent innd economic*. Members of the US Senate includedawyers,
engineers,octor, andith backgrounds ln other fields. Members of the House of Representativesawyers,
octors,ournalists,ith backgrounds In other fields.
According to Wolfle, onlyercent of the employedgraduates in the US3 were working in the fields in which they majored as The Commiebion found that, exceptew fields such as medicine, law, and engineering, college graduates typically had shifted into business or administration, other professional fields, and even into nonprofessional vork (seeelatively email proportion of the graduates who had majored in such general fields aa the social sciences or the humanities and arts vere employed ln occupationa corresponding to their fields of study. On the
Table 3
Male college Graduates in the Civilian Labor ForceBy Field of Study and Occupation3
Percentage Distribution
Field of Study,
Natural sciences
Social sciences
Humanities and arts
Engineering
Agriculture
Health fields
Business and commerce
Education
Lav
OCCUpa-tlOnS
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
as
of
22
b/
Adapted from.
b. Included under Business and Administration, force.
-
other hand, the vast majority of those who majored in the health fields, in law, and in engineering were employed in the professions in which they were trained.
The data inlso show that US graduateseneral educational background were more likely to enter managerial and administrative occupations than thosepecialized Graduates in business aod commerce vere the most likely to do so,airly large proportion of the graduates in the social sciences alao entered such occupations. On the other hand, only about one-sixth of the graduates in such specialized fields as engineering, science, law, and agriculture were employed inoccupations.
In the USSB, in sharp contrast to the US, there are no opportunitieseneral higher education. As illustrated in the data on fields of training shown inraduates from Soviet higher educational institutions have been trainedpecific occupational specialty. Even under those circumstances, however, the occupationollege graduate ln tbe USSR may not correspond to the occupation suggested by his field of study. As indicated above, this does not mean necessarily that the graduate has abandoned his training or that he is employed in an occupation that does nota higher education. On the contrary, the USSR's policy of directed placement, of specialists forces the majority of graduates of higher educational establishments to embark Immediately on graduation on jodb that largely coincide with their field of training.** college graduates are used extensively ln the USSRjust as in the USin managerial and administrative occupations. In contrast to the US, however, the college graduates who ore employed ln the USSR as administrators, managers, and Party and government officialsbecause of the nature of the educational system that trained themare persons who majored in specialized fields.
2. Employment of College Graduates as Managers and Officials
An approximation of the number of college graduatesin managerial and administrative occupations in the US may be obtained by reference to the occupational category "Managers andin the statistics published by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics.ut* million persons employed in those occupations,or about one-fifth of the totalwere college otaldditional college graduates was employed asainly shopkeepers and owners of small
* P.bove.
** iscussion of Soviet placement procedures and theirsee.
-
.raduates, orercent of all graduates in the ,lvil!un labor force, uere employed in managerial, administrative.
rietary occupations.
Information relating to che fields of study in which thesemajored while la college is not available ln official US Mildlcntions. The surveys conducted by the Commission on Human |icii,<urces and Advanced Training and by Fortune, citedermit ^we general observations. Probably more than half had majored in |ftC fields of business administration, law, the humanities and arts, ami the social sciences. Although engineers may haveinable proportion of top management in industry, their employment ts managers, officials, and proprietors ln other sectors of tbeprobably vas quite limited.
The USSR has not published an occupational distribution of its college graduates, but rough estimates of the number of college graduates in managerial occupations may be constructed from datato total employment ln such occupations (see Of the various occupations listed in the Soviet statistics, only those that were readily identifiable as managerial are included here. The total numberillioncannot be compared with the estimate" million "Kanagem and Officials" in the US, cited above.
The number of college graduatea among these Sovietprobably ranged This rough estimate was based on Judgments regarding each of the managerial occupations shown In Table ft. Among the first five occupations listed, vhlchillion government officials and the managers above the foreman level in industry, construction, transportation, comouni-eations, and state agriculture, probably almost one-half were college graduates. The predominance of college graduates amongernment and Party functionaries (see Table <t) is suggested by the nuaber or graduates reportedly enployed in all government departments and Party organizationsj_/ Hoot or these graduatea probably vere employed in managerial and administrative rather than technical positions- Amongirectors ofavidnd various Sovietuve
" See I, p. io, ollows on p. o, aboutercent Of the heads of communications of dc v coil'-^- r; li I . Q
ercent of the plant directors in the cement industry were collegen the Mooeou Oblastboutercentstate farm directors were college
Table *
teployaent ir. Selected the L'SSal ft/
9
Thouaond
Honda of state administrative organs and their structural
of Party, Komsomol, trade union, cooperative,
and other social organizations and their
Directors, chiefs, and managers ofof technical-production branches, sectors, groups,
and
Leaders of shops, baysorkshops, and
Chairmen of collective farms and their
Chairmen of industrial artels and
Heads of publishing houses and their
Directors of theaters, movies, parks, museums, andand managers of stores and heads of trade
Managers of restaurants (except
f procurement, supply, and aalesof planning, financial and economic accounting,
and atatiatical branches of enterprises andof clerical brancheo and offices of enterprises
and
. Occupations treated as resld-tiLs in sources are identified in
indicated that in thea, on the average, considerably more than half were college graduatea. Amongubordinates of these directora (branch chiefs and ahop and section leaders) theof college graduates probably ls lower than among the directora themselvesperhaps one-third. These five occupations, therefore, probably accounted foroLloge graduates
For the other managerial occupations shown in Tablenformation on educational attainment io available only for thefarm chairmen and theirercent of whom were college graduatea It is eatimated that the proportion of college graduates in these regaining managerial occupations probably averaged betweenndercent and that their number ranged.
- II. -
A distribution of theoe graduates by field of study is not available. It Is estimated, however, that about three-fifths of thenhad. majored ln engineering. Tboeel allotshad majored In such fields as agriculture, economics, trade, and law. These estimates are based on the distribution of all employed graduates as shown in
Ill- Engineering Manpower
Because of the lack of correspondence between field of study and occupation, the number of persona employedarticular] occupation may not necessarily correspond to tbe number of employed collegewho were trained specifically for tbat occupation. For this reason, lt is desirable to use two separate but related approaches to an assessment of professional manpower, the first relating exclusively to college graduates on the basis of their field'Of study and the second relating to persons employed in professional occupationsof the amount or nature of their educational background. Aa suggested above, such an approach la indispensable when comparing two countries with differentf employment.
The nature and limitations of the available data preclude the application of this dual approach to comparisons of all categories of professional manpower. With tbe available data, however, it Is possible to illustrate the implications of this dual approach toof engineering manpower in the US and the USSR.
Two types of eatimates of engineering manpower for the US,the two approaches described above, are shown ln thechart.* Thestimates relate only tograduatea who majored in engineering; tbe estimate of theemployed In the civilian labornd Its comparable estimate for the USSR) have been discussed
As shown in the chart, aboutor three-fourths of theae US engineering graduates, were employed as engineers.7 Based on the
bove. In order to construct the estimates, peraona who majored in the physical and life, the health, andre flrat subtracted from theecause the managerial and administrative positiona that auch graduates are likely lo hold ore omitted from the positions listed In Table 4. The number of engineerings then calculated to be aboutercent of the remaining graduates.
** Following on See II, B,, p.bove.
to the National Science Foundation, which sponsored the survey on which this estimate io based,ootnote continued on p.
-
NGINEERING MANPOWER ANO ITS EMPLOYMENTCIVILIAN LABOR FORCE OF THE US,
II ESTIMATE
Persons EmployedEngint
IM THOUSANDS
STJWATE
M$i
-
who maiorcd inend lire
g'ad<iale&
sources and Methodology, see AppnndK b
College graduates *ho majced in dvldi olhci man engineer tag
"englneere" are defined an nil persons engaged in engineering work thatnowledge ol" engineering, physical, life, orsciences equivalent at least to that acquired throughor acollege courseajor in these fields. Included are metallurgical, mechanical, chemical, electrical, and all other types of engineers engaged in research and development,management, technical sales, and all other positions that usually require an engineering
-
findings of the Commission on Human Resources and Advanced Training citedt may be estimated that0fngineering graduates employed in other occupations were employed in "Business and Administration"mainly as managers or administratorsand that most of the remainder were inpositions.
The Type II estimates relate to the total number of personsas engineers, including not only0 engineeringcited above but also an0 graduates who majored in other fields" andoncollege graduates.
Although similar detailed data relating to thestimates are not available for the USSR, some general observations may be made based on the estimates discussed As indicated there, anf the engineering graduates employed in the civilian economy vere employed in managerial and administrative occupations.0 additional are employed as foremen, as scientists, or temporarily on initial assignment as nonprofessional workers. only about one-half ofi,OO0 engineering graduates employed in the civilian economy of the USSR9 actually were employed as engineers, contrasting with about three-fourths of US engineering graduates who were so employed.
Similarly, with regard to the Type II estimates, the USSR hasthat inased on the results of9 census of population,ersons were employed in occupations that were classified under the broad heading "engineers."* If it is assumed that few If any college graduates who majored in fields other thanre employed as engineers, then this estimatencludes0 engineering graduates and almoston-college graduates. Thus close to half of the persons employed as engineers in the USSR are noncollege graduates compared with only one-fifth in the US-
" Sec II, C,bove, and Tablebove. ** Primarily the physical sciences or See II, C,bove.
1 . With few exceptions, persons employed in these occupations were classified as engineers regardless of their educational hack-ground. 3j/
ti Tn the US the college graduates employed as engineers vho had majoredield other -han engineering were primarily physical science majors- Unlike the US, however, the USSR classifies most of its physical science majors as engineering graduates (sec II, B,, p.bove).
Comparisons of engineering manpower that have appeared Inpublications of both the US and the USSB generally have equated the number of engineering graduatea employed in tho entire civilian economy of the USSB with tbe number of engineering graduates employed In engineering positions in the US. Estimates based on theseconcepts, for example, were citedomparison preoented before the US Congress In that comparloon,illiontrained engineers, typically vith atearinstitute diploma" in the USSB vere compared vith "engineers in the United States fvhol numberednda third or more of then did notormal" 3ji/ This reckoning implies that there vere onlyngineering graduates employed in tbe US compared vithillion I" if-fin
Estimates that apparently vere based on these differenthave appeared ln Soviet publications. Tne comparisonor example, appeared in0 yearbook issued by theStatistical Administration. Tbe data for the USSB relatenumber of engineering graduates vho vere employed in the The data for the US apparently represent eetiaatestbe USSB of only the number of engineering graduates vho vereas
These comparisons vould be valid only If all of the college-graduate engineers in the USSB actually vere employed as engineers. Such an assumption, however, is Inconsistent vith the pattern of utilization in the USSR*'as discuaeed above.
5
-
Soviet Comparison of College-Graduate Engineers Employed in the US and the USSR a/ Selected0O-60
Persons
0
and estimates for the US probably are ae of midyear.
-
APPENDIX A.
DE>-iari'iais amp problems of comparability
of a'College Graduate
Tne term college' graduate as used in this report refers to (l) persons in the US who haveears or more of collegeersons in the USSR who havediploma"higher educational(vyssheye.uchebnoye zavedeniyevuz). The difference between these two definitions'reflects the manner in which each country compiles and publishes statistics on the educational attainment of its population. The US Bureau of the Census publishes information on educationalin terms of years of schooling, without indicating whether thoseears or more of college actually graduated. It ia assumed, however, that tbe number of persons in the US who haveears or more of college is practically the same as the number of collegeoviet statistics on educational attainment, on tho other hand, refer to the type of school attended without indicating the number of years of schooling. Some of the persona who are counted as college graduates in the USSR, for example, completedears of college.** In general, however, the period of college training in the USSR ranges
of Comparability
a. Sources and Reliability of the Data
A breakdown of the number of college graduates in the civilian labor force by field of study waa estimated ass accordance with the procedures outlined in The estimatea for the USSR were baaed on official Soviet data published in statistical handbooks. The estimates for the US were baaed on data relating to the number of persons graduating from American colleges and universitiesecause of the absence of official US statistics on the number ofcollege graduates by field of study, it was necessary tothe number of living college graduates in each major field and to apply "labor force participation ratea" to each of theae eatimates in order to determine the number of persons in each field that werein the civilian labor forceT The estimates for the US,
* The US Bureau of tho Census, in interpreting its statistics, refers to personsears or more of college as "college* In teacher-training institutes, now Differences in the quality of the education and of the student's work experience following graduation are beyond the scope of this report.
t For methodology, see Appendix B.
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therefore, are approximations that should be treated only as roughof the order of magnitude.
b. Differences Between the Classification Systems
Listed inremajor fields" by which US college graduates were classified by the US Office of Education9 and morespecialties" offered in Soviet higher educational establishments The estimated breakdown of college-graduate manpower in the US and the USSR by major field of study, as shown ins based on these classification systema. Tho data for the US ore grouped into areas of study analogous to those for which Soviet data were available.
* P.bove.
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APPENDIX B
SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY FORND FIGURE 3
I. Table 1: College Graduates in the Population and Labor Force of the US and the9
Data
Total college graduate a. 3JJ/ Data relate to
College graduates in tho labor force. The sua of the armed forces and the civilian labor force.
College graduates in the arced forces. The educational level of military personnel estimated by the US Department of Defense as of; these estimates arc applied to armed forces levels for
College graduates In the civilian labor Datato persons lo years of age and over,ears or more of college, inncluding the employed and the unemployed.
College graduates not ln the labor force. Obtained bythe college graduates in tbe labor force from the total number of college graduates.
Data
Total college Data relate to
College graduates in tho labor force
Estimated5 percent of all male Participation in the labor force by male collegeassumed to be the some as in the US.
Some as the number of college graduatea inlabor force.
graduates In the armed forces. Obtained bythe graduates in the civilian labor force froa the graduates lnlabor force.
graduates ln the civilian labor force.
-
ii. Both Estimate relates to
Obtained by subtracting female collegeboth .
Tbe percentage of females wasndf theseorcent) ls applied to theboth sexes for8 to obtain the number of femaleao of that date.
'j. raduates not In tli" labor force. Obtained bythe number in the labor force from the total number of graduates.
II. Table 2: College Graduates ln the Civilian Labor Force of the US ami the USSR, by Field of0
A. US Data
An Inventory of all of the college graduates in the. US,according to the fields in which they majored while in college, has never been compiled, by any of the statistical agencies of the US Government. sing data on annual graduationsO from American colleges and universities, calculated estimates of the number of living college graduatea an Those esttastes appear inf
In order to update Wolfle'a ootlmatea tohe number of graduations In each fieldere added. These numbers, as reported by the US Office of Education, kjj are shown inf Table 6. Annual graduations include only persons vhoachelors or other first-level degree. The updated estimates of living graduates as ofith no account taken of deaths, are shown inf Table 6. By thla method the total number of living graduatea9.
According to the US Bureau of the Census, however, thu number of persons in the USears or more of college in9. Thla estimate is shown in Table The Cenaua estimate, basedousehold survey, probably la slightly exaggerated. considering the more serious limitations of an estimate based onreports spanning more thanentury, the Census estimate is considered to be the more valid one. Each of the estimates inf Tablehorcfore, is multipliedactor) to obtain the adjusted estimates in column 4.
ollows on* P.bove.
-
sS ffPfifL
a rvl mrH pi ru oi cu
oi
too% n>
HOI Ul rlvOf C- O ) O*
Hoi ui i -a
3
f-1 1 IO
e: or.
li
d o
E
ill!,
fi- lis
Table 6
Derivation of Estimates Of College Graduates Bnployed in the Civilian Labor Force of tbe US In9 gj (Continued)
Meld of Study
Other fields Social sciences, except ecoamlco
History
Psychology
Other
Hunanltlcs aod arts Sogllsa
Foreign languages Philosophy Fine arte d/
Klscellaneous fields
Hone economics Other professions e/ All ether
fl)
(6)
Graduates9
in tha Civilian Later Force
ub ted
Labor For--
b/
b/
73
b/
337
5 . B5
36
a
155
6
b/
2
37
ifi
152
m
2
360
sources and methodology, nee the appropriate sections in tbe text.
and subtotals vere obtained by adding the conponents.
general science.
general arts.
architecture, Journalism, library aclence, and social vori.
-
Volfe aLto estimated,he percentage of living gradu-etee. In each field of study, that vas In tbe labor These percentages, shovn lnf Tableere applied to theIno calculate the distribution of employed graduates as shovn in column 6. Summing these detailed results, an estimate0 employed graduates vas obtained. This estimate is practically the same aa tho Census estimate of employed graduates inshovn in* The estimates inre adjusted to agree vith the Census total; each estimate le multipliedactor7 to obtain the estimates shovn ln column 7.
B. USSR Data
To obtain estimates for the USSR relating as clooely as possible to. it vas nccossory to Interpolate between7 The estimates infxcept for those in parentheses, appearedoviet statistical handbook. 4g/ The estimates inepresentof the estimates innd 2. Inhese estimates are adjusted to agree vith the officially reported total number ofgraduate0 in the civilian laborhown innd vith the officially reported number of employedhovn In
The estimates in parentheses infere constructed as follovo:
specialists" and "Other health specialists"
Tie USSR reported that in0 theremployed college graduates vho had majored ln health fields. Of these,3 percent, vere Thiolo applied to the reported number of physicians79 to derive estimates for the health specialistsroup. Tho category "Other health specialists" is obtained by subtraction.
librarians, aod cul tural-eul1 ghtenment upu-
cialnd "university graduatea"
Aloo for0 the USSR reported that university graduatea2 percent, and teachers, librarians, and cultural-enlightenment specialists8 percent, of thegroup in vhlch they are normally Those percentages
oil own on* P.bove.
-
Table 7
Derivation of'Estimates of College Graduates Employed in the Civilian Labor Force of the USSR a/8
Thousand Persons
ecembe
8
7
9
Agronomists, zootechnicians, veterinarians, and foreatera
Economists andtatisticians
Trade specialists "
Lawyer3
Health specialists
7
209
4
OtJaer health specialists
39
of(except geologists, lawyers, physicians, aodibrarians, and cultural-enlightenment specialists
9
librarians, and cu1tural-cnilghtenment specialists
University graduates
210
and life scientists Other university graduates
76
specialists not elsewhere classified b/
sources and methodology, see the appropriate sections in theof rounding, components may not add to the totals shown.
including persons trained in military specialties whoin the civilian labor force.
-
are applied to tbe combined estimates reported79 to obtain individual estimates for these two categories.
3. "Physical and life scientists" and "Other university graduates
Based on estimates calculated by DeWitt,ercent of all persons who graduated from Soviet colleges and9 had majored in the mathematical, physical, and biological sciences att is assumed tbat thisis applicable to the employed university graduates7stimates for "Other university graduates" are obtained by
HI. Figure 3: Engineering Manpower and Its Employment in the Civilian labor Force of the9
A. College graduates who majored in engineering
1. Total. From columnablebove.
?. , below.
3. Employed in other occupationsobtained by subtraction. 8. Persona employed nu engineers 1. Total
The US Bureau of Labor Statistics estimatesersons were employed In engineering positions In the US Thio estimate, which is baaed on surveys of business firms end otherincludes "all persona who wore engaged in engineering workevel whichnowledge of engineering, physical, life, or mathematical sciences equivalent at leant to that acquiredear college couraaajor in thesej/
The US Bureau of the Census estimatesersona* were employed ln the occupational category "Engineers"hia estimate, based on the results of0 Census of Population, ls obtained by classifying the Job titles, which were reported by indlvidualB, ln accordanceredetermined classification system. Job titles were classified as engineering This
" Kales only; the number of femoloe employed ao engineers, probably negligible, was not reported.
-
estimate differs free the ooe cited above, in part because of tbe later reference period but primarily because of tbe different underlying survey procedures. Tbe estimate9 prepared by the Bureau of LaborIs used ln this report because (l) Its time reference is more comparable to that of tbe available estimate for tho USSR,analytical material provided by the Bureau of Labor Statistics survey was used to estimate certain educational characteristics of the employed engineers (secelow).
2. College graduates who majored in engineering,who majored in other fields, and
-
It is estimated by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics that9 sore thanercent of the persons employed in engineering positions in US industry did notollege degree; An additionalercent bad degrees but had majored in fields other than Thus, amongersons employed in engineering positionsere noncoUegc0 were college graduates who had not majored in engineering,ere college graduates who had majored in engineering.
APPETOIX C
FIELDS OF STUDY OFFERED IK HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IJiSTITbTIONS OF THE US AND THE USSH
I. Major Fields in Colleges and Uolversitleg ln the US
Agriculture b/
Agronomy, Field Crops Animal Husbandry Dairy Husbandry
Dairy Manufacturing, Dairy Technology
Farm Management, excluding Agricultural Economics
Food Technology
Horticulture (fruit and vegetable production) Ornamental Horticulture (Floriculture, Nursery Management, Landscape Gardening) Poultry Husbandry
Soils (Soil Science, Soil Management, Soil Conservation) Agriculture, other specific major fields Agriculture, general (general agriculture curriculum, vlth-out major specialization) Agriculture not further classified
Architecture (excluding Architectural Engineering) Biological Sciences cj
Premedical, predental, preveterinary sciences Biology, general Zoology, general Anatomy and Histology
Bacteriology, Virology, Mycology, Parasitology
Biochemistry
Biophysics
Entomology
Genetics (including experimental plant and animal breeding)
Optometry (preprofessional bachelor's degree)
Pathology (excluding Plant Pathology)
Pharmacology (excluding Pharmacy)
Physiology (excluding Plant Physiology)
Plant Pathology
Plant Physiology
Biological sciences, all other
* Footnotes follow on p. kk.
-
Business and Commerce b/
Accounting
Hotel and Restaurant Administration Secretarial Studies
Business and Commerce, other specific major fields Business and Ccamerce, general (general curriculum without major specialization) Business and Commercenot further classified
Education
Specialized Teaching Fields
Physical Education (separate curriculum or combined curriculum wilh Health Education or Recreation)
Health Education (separate curriculum)
Recreation (separate curriculum)
Education of Exceptional Children (all areas except Education of Mentally Retarded and Speech Correction)
Education of Mentally Retarded
Speech Correction
Agricultural Education
Art Education
Business Education, Commercial Education Distributive Education (retail selling) Home Economics Education Industrial Arts Education (nonvocatlonal) Music Education
Trade and Industrial Education (vocational) Specialized teaching fields, all other
General Teaching Fields
Nursery and/or Kindergarten Education
Early Childhood Education (through primary grades)
Elementary Education
Secondary Education (including Junior high school) d/ Combined Elementary and Secondary Education Adult Education Other
-
Counseling and Guidance, Educational, Administration and Supervision, Educational Finance, Curriculum, Comparative Education, and so on
Education, general {without specific concentration)second-level or higher degrees only
Other
EducationPreprofessionol bachelor's degree only
Educationnot further classified
Kr.gincorlng
Aeronautical Engineering Agricultural Engineering Architectural Engineering Ceramic Engineering Chemical Engineering Civil Engineering Electrical Engineering Engineering Mechanics Engineering Physics Engineering Science General Engineering cj Geological Engineering Geophysical Engineering Industrial Engineering fj Mechanical Engineering Metallurgical Engineering Mining Engineering
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering
Petroleua Engineering
Sanitary Engineering
Textile Engineering
welding Engineering
Unclassified
Other g/
Bnylliih and Journalism
Engliuh Language and Literature (including Comparative Literature) Journalism
-
Fine and Applied Arts b/
Art, general (general curriculum without najor special!ration) Music, including Sacred Music (excluding Music Education) Speech and Dramatic Arts (excluding Speech Correction) Pine and Applied Arts, other specific major fields fine and Applied Artsnot further classified
Foreign Languages and Literature
Linguistics (including Phonetics and Semantics) Latin and/or Greek
Foreign languages
Chinese
French
German
Italian
Japanese
Philology and Literature of Germanic Languages Philology and Literature of Romance Languages Russian or other Slavic Languages Spanish
Modern foreign languages, all other
Foreign languuges and literature, not classifiable above Forestry
Health Professions c/
Chiropody or Podiatry Dental Hygiene
Dentistry. only) Hospital Administration Medical Technology Medicine. only)
Nursing (including Public Health Nursing; excluding Nursing Education) Occupational Therapy
Optometry (excluding prcprofessional degree) Osteopathy
Pharmacy (excluding Pharmacology) Physical Therapy, Physiotherapy Public Health
-
Health Professions cj (Continued)
Radiologic Technologyay technique)
Veterinary Medicine. only)
Clinical dental oclencee (advanced degrees only)
Clinical medical eclonces (advanced degrees only)
Clinical veterinary nodical sciences (advanced degrees only)
Health professions, all other
Hcce Econoclcs b/
Beaas Economics, general curriculum Child Development, Family Relations Clothing and Textiles Poods and Nutrition
Institution Management, Institution Administration Heme Economics, other specific major fields Home Economicsnot further classified
Lavr higher degree)
Library Science
Mathematical Subjects
Mathematics
Statistics (including Actuarial Science) Merchant MarinaDeck-Officer Curriculum Only Military, Naval, or Air Force Science STiilosophy
Philosophy (except Scholastic Philosophy) Scholastic Philosophy
Physical Sciences h/
Physical Science, general (without specific major) Astronomy
Chemistry (excluding Biochemistry)
Metallurgy (excluding Metallurgical Engineering)
Meteorology
Physics
-
Earth Sciences
Geology
Geophysics (including Seismology) Oceanography
Earth sciences, all other
Physical sciences, not classifiable above Psychology Religion
Religious Education and Bible
Theology (curriculum leading specifically to first-professional ministerial degree) Theology (master's and doctor's degrees only) Religion (liberal arts curriculum, nonsectorian) Religion, all other
Social Sciences i/
Basic 1/
Social Science, general (without specific major) American Civilization, American Culture Anthropology
Area studies, regional studies
Economics (excluding Agricultural Economics)
History
International Relations Political Science or Government Sociology
Basic social sciences, all other Applied Agricultural Economics
Foreign Service Program (consular and diplomatic service)
Industrial Relations
Public Administration
Social Vork, Social Administration
Applied social sciences, all other
-
Trade und Industrial Trai nl tig b/
llaneous
Arts, general program (without major field) Sciences, general program (without major field) Arts and Sciences, general program Major fields of study not classifiable above Major field not identified
II. Specialties ln Higher Educational Institutions of the USSR j/
Engineering
Geology and the Exploration of Mineral Deposits
Geology and exploration of mineral deposits Geological surveying and prospecting for mineral deposits Geology and prospecting for oil and gaa deposits. Prospecting and preparing peat deposits for exploitation Geophyaical methods of aearch and prospecting for mineral
deposits Geochemistry
Hydrogeology and engineering geology Techniques of prospecting for mineral deposits Geology
Exploitation of Mineral Deposits
Mine surveying Exploiting mineral deposits Exploiting peat deposits Concentration of minerals Exploiting oil and gas deposits Constructing mining enterprises
Design and operation of gas pipelines, gas storage tanks,
and petroleum sites Installation of gas pipelines, gas storage tanks,
and petroleum sites
Hover Engg
Electric -stations and systems Electric networks
Electrification of industrial enterprises and establishments Mining electromcchunics
-
Power Engineering (Continued)
Thermal power establishments of electric power stations hydroelectric power establishments Industrial thermal power Thermal physics
Design and operation of atomic energy installations Metallurgy
Metallurgy of ferrous metals Metallurgy of nonferrous metals Metallurgical furnaces
Foundry production of ferrous and nonferrous metals Physico-chemical research of metallurgical processes Physics of metals
Science of metals; equipment and technology of thermal
processing of metals Processing of metals by pressure
Machine Building and Instrument Construction
Technology of machine building, metal cutters, and instruments
Machines and technology of foundry production
Machines and technology of processing metals by pressure
Equipment and technology of welding production
Mechanical equipment of plants of ferrous and nonferrous
metallurgy Mining machines Peat machines
Machines and equipment of oil and gas products Agricultural machines
Hoisting and transport machines and equipment Construction and road machines and equipment Railroad car construction Motor vehicles and tractors Shipbuilding and repair Polygraphic machines
Machines and apparatus of chemical production Machines and apparatus of food production Machines and apparatus of light and textile Industry production
Machines and mechanisms of the timber industry and forestry Boiler construction Turbine construction
Machines and equipment for communications enterprises Intcrnul combustion engines
-
Machine Building and Instrument. Construction (Continued)
Ship machines and mechanisms
Ship power installations
Locomotive Building
Dynamics and strength of machines
Hydraulic turbines and other hydraulic machines
Refrigerating and compressor machines and installations
Optical instruments
Instruments of precision mechanics
Mechanical equipment of aircraft
Film apparatus
Aircraft construction
Aviation motive power
Gyro-aerodynamics
Optics and spectroscopes
Optical-physical instruments
Electrical Machine Building and Electrical Instrument Building
Electrical machines and apparatus Electrical transport
Electrical insulation and cable technics Dielectrics and semiconductors Electrovacuum machines Automechonics and telemechanics Automation of productive processes
Mathematical and calculating instruments and installations
Gyroscopic instruments and installations
Electro-acoustics and ultrasonic engineering
Electronic instruments
Industrial electronics
Electro thermic installations
Lighting engineering and lighting sources
Sound engineering
Aircraft appliance construction
Electrical equipment of Bhlps
Technical operation of aircraft instruments and electrical
equipment of aircraft Electromechanical apparatus of communications Instruments and installations of radiometric and dosimetric
measurement Eloetroracasurement technology Electronlc-medicul apparatus
-
Radio Engineering nndadio engineering
Telegraph and telephone communications
Radio cocanunications and radiobroadcasting
Design and technology and production of radio apparatus
Radlophysics and electronics
Technical operation of aircraft radio equipment
Chemical Technology
Technology of oil andtechnology ofof Inorganicof rare end scatteredof electrochemicalof nl
Technology of basic and organic synthesis and syntheticof dyes and intermediateof medicinal and aromaticof*'
Technology of lacquers, paints, and noametalllc coverings Technology of rubber
Technology of cinematographic materials Technology of electrovacuum materials Chemical kinetics and combustion
Technology of separation and application of isotopes Chemical engineering Radiotional chemistry
r.gl nee ring and Technology of Wood, Cellulose, and Paper
Timber engineering Mechanical technology of wood Chemical technology of wood
Technology of cellulose and paper production
Technology of the Pood Products Industry
Storuge and technology of processing grain Technology of bread, pasta, and pastry production Technology of sugars Technology of fermentation Technology of wine making Technology of vegetable fats Technology of canning Technology of subtropical crops
-
Technology of the Food Products Industry (Continued)
Technology of moat and milk products
Technology of fish products
Technology and organization of public feeding
Industrial fishing
Ichthyology and pisciculture
Technology of food products
Technology of vitamin production
Technology of Consumer Goods
Initial processing of fibrous matariols Mechanical technology of fibrous materials Chemical technology of fibrous materials Technology of artificial leather Technology of leather goods Technology of polygraphlc production Technology of apparel and footwear production
.vf.'
Construction
Architecture
Industrial und civil construction
Bydrotechnicol construction of river installations
and hydroelectric power stations Hydratechnlcal construction of sea lanes and ports Urban construction and urban economy
Production of concrete and reinforced concrete and parts for precast construction Gas-heat supply and ventilation Water supply and piping Railroad construction Highwaya
Bridges and tunnels Construction of airports
Hydrotechnical and hydromellorative construction Sanitary technology
Construction of roads, bridges, and airports
Geodesy and Cartography
Engineering geodesy Astronomic geodeoy Aerial photogeodesy Cartography
-
lopy and Meteorology
Hydrology of Land Oceanalogy Hydrography Meteorology Agrometeorology
Agricultural Technology
Organization of agricultural production
Mechanization of the processes of agricultural production
Electrification of the processes of agricultural production
Hydrccelioratlon
Rolling stock and tractive economy of railroad transportation Electrification of railroad transportation Automation, telemechanics, and coomunlcatIons in railroad transportation Operation of railroads City electric transportation Ship navigation on oeu routes Ship navigation on internal water routes Operation of water transportation Operation of motor vehicle transportation Operation of aircraft and engines
Agriculture and Forestry
Science of soils and agrochemistry Agronomy
Fruit and vegetable growing and viticulture
Plant protection
Silk growing
Zootechnics
Veterinary medicine
Forestry
Economics
Planning of the national economy Economics of Induatry
Economics and planning of material und technical supply Economics of labor
Economics and organization of the mining industry
- Uo -
Economics (Continued)
Economics and organization of tbe oil and gas industry Economics and organisation of pover Economics and organization of tne metallurgy industry Economics and organization of the machine building induatry Economics and organization of the shipbuilding industry Economics and organization of the chemical industry Economics and organization of the polygraphlc industry Economics of cinematography
BconomlcB and organization of tbe consumer goods industry Economics and organization of agriculture Economics of agriculture
Economics and organization of the food products industry Economics and organization of the timber industry Economics and organization of the wood-processing and cellulose and paper industries Economics and organization of construction EcononicB and organization of the urban econony Economics and organization of railroad transportation Economics and organization of water transportation Economics and organization of motor vehicle transportation Economics and organization of air transportation Economics and organization of communications Economics of trade International economic relations Merchandising industrial commodities Merchandising food products Finance and credit Statistics Accounting
Mechanization of accounting and record keeping Economics of the national economy
Law
rudence International relations
Kealth and Physical Culture
Medicine
Pediatrics
Sanitation
Stomatology (oral medicine) Pharmacy
Physical culture and sports
- Ul -
Special-lea la Universities (except engineering, agriculture, economics, lav, and medicine)
Russian language and literature
Native languages and literature of the peoples of lhe USSR
Slavic languages and literature
Romance and Germanic language and literature
Eastern languages and literature
Classic philology
Study of countries ln the East
History -
Science of history and archives
Political economy
Philosophy
Psychology
Mathematics
Mechanics
Astronomy
Physics
Geophysics "
Chemistry
Biology
Botany
Zoology
Physiology of plants Physiology of man andn ttaropology Journalism Literature History of the arte Geography
Specialties ln Pedagogical and Library Institutes Russian language and literature
Native language and literature of the peoples of the USSR
Foreign languagea
Mathematics
Physics
Natural science and chemistry
Geography
History
Drafting and drawing
Pedagogy and psychology
Defectology
Cultural education
Library science and bibliography
- Ii2 -
Specialties in Pedagogical and Library Institutes (Continued) Physical education
Native language and literatureear teachers institutes) Physics and mathematicsear teachers Institutes) Historyear teachers institutes)
Natural science and geographyear teachers institutes) Music and singing
General-technical discipline and labor Pedagogy and methodology of national education
Art
Pianoforte (organ) Orchestral instruments Folk instruments Singing
Opera and symphony direction Choral direction Composition Science of music
Actor of dramatic theater and cinema
Actor of musical comedy
Direction of drama
Direction of musical theater
Direction of ballot
Cinema director
Movie equipment operator
Theater technics and staging
Science of theater
Science of cinema
Painting
Graphics
Sculpture
Artistic working of metal
Artistic working of wood
Artistic working of glass and plastics
Artistic ceramics
Art in tic design of fabrics
History and theory of fine arts
Interior decorating
- hi -
who have prepared to teach ln the followingare Included under "Education": Agricultural Education,Business Education and Commerce,one Economics Education, Industrial ArtsMusic Education. Speech Correction, and TradeEducation (vocational).
Including Psychology, which, because of itshas been listed independently.
degrees based on secondary education as the majorstudy. Degrees basedeaching majorarticularsuch as English, biology, physical sciences, businessthe like, ore classified as degrees in English, biology, andand not aa degrees in Secondary Education.
c. Including also the separately accredited curriculum,at the University of California (Loo Angeles) and at the Stevens Institute of Technology (as distinguished from "General Engineering").
administrative engineering, managementso on.
curricula accredited9 hy the ECPDfor Professional Development) ln one or more Institutions
are listed by specific title; curricula which were not then accredited by the ECPD at any institution aro included under "Other."
Including Geography, vhlch, because of itshas been listed independently.
including Geography, Philosophy, or Psychology,of their multicategory or comprehensive nature, haveindependently, in alphabetical order.
J. Certain agricultural fields are included under "Engineering" in accordance with the classification system indicated in source
- kh -
APPENDIX D
SOURCE RKFiRFNCRS
Education and Welfare, Office of Education. Engl neer-
lag Enrollments andircI, p. Ik. USSR, Central Statistical Administration. 0 godu (The USSR In Figures,T, p. ilk.
Education and Welfare, Office of Education. Engineer-
ing Enrollments andirc,SSR, Central Statistical Administration. Narodnoye khozyaystvo9 ftodu (National Economy of the USSR, (hereafter referred to as Narodnoye
USSR?'Central Statistical Administration. Narodnoye khozyaystvo0 ftodu (Hational Economy Of the USSR,- (hereafter referred to as
Bureau of Labor Statistics. The Long-Range Demand for
Scientific and Technical Personnel, prepared for the National Science Foundation, NSF (hereafterto as LonR-Ranga Demand) It. Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Educational Attainment: SSR, Central Statistical Administration. Sredneye spetsial'noyeSSR. statist!cheskjy sbornlk (SecondaryEducation in thetatistical
Pravda,
Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the
United-
Nicholas. Education and Professional Employment in the
USSR, National ScienceI, p.-
Central Statistical Administration. Vyssheye obrazovanlye
v SSSR (Higher Education in thehereafter referred to as Vyssheye)
op.bove).
Joint Council. The Training. Placement and Utiliza-
tion of Engineers and Technicians in the Soviet Union, New
DeWitt, op.bove).
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Outlook Hand-
1 Edition, bulletinQ,
Central Statistical Adminiatration. Zdravookhraaenlye
v SSSR (Health in the
- k$ -
lit. Granick, David. The Red Executive. New0 Toportune,f,
15- Wolfle, Deel. America's Resources of
DeWitt, og.7 ff.
oportune,f.
l8- Congressional Quarterlyh Congress.ol. XVI. Washington lQnn
Wolfle, og.,. 6l.
.
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Special Labor Sbrce
Reports, Ho.Educational Attainment of.
2k. Granick,it. {Ik,
Vestnik svyazi. no.
USSR, State All-Union Scientific Research Institute for the
Cement Industry. Rezervy tsementnoy promyshlonnoflti Soviet Ceinentoscow,
27- Ekonomicheskaya gazeta..
.
USSR, Central Statistical Administration. omen and Children in theI,
Central Statistical Administration. Slstematlcheakiv
zanvatiy (Systematic Dictionary of
tral Statistical Administration. Sel'skoye khozvavstvo
SSSR (Agriculture in the. foo.
31. . 6l.
USSR, Central Statistical Administration. Sistematlcheskiv
slovar1 zanvatlv (Systematic Dictionary of. 3J'- US House ofh Congress,ession.
Hearings Before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Comparison of United States and USSR Science Elation,'
iyw,
Central Statistical Administration. sifrokh v
odu (The USSR in Figures,.
Bureau of the Census. Literacy and Educational
Attainment: :
Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Literary and Educational
- kC -
Attainment:
39- Defense. Selected Manpower Statlatics,O. 9
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Special Labor Force
Reports, noEducational Attainment of".
.
USSR, Central Statistical Administration. SSR
(Woman in ta*
.
Wolfle,,-
Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education. Earned
Degreea Conferred by Higher Educational Institutions, annual-
,.
.
Ibid.
52. DeVitt, og. Long-Range, 6l.
54. Commerce, Bureau of tbe Census. US Census of Population:
final report, PC lassified Index of Occupations and
56. Lccg-Rar.ge
57- Health, Education and Welfare, Office or Education. Earned Degreesngineering Er^lbaents and
58. . Planirovonlycaspredeleniya
SSR (Planning the Training and Distribution of Specialiots ln theI,.
59- -
Original document.
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