CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
SOVIET MILITARY AND CIVIL AVIATION POLICIES
CIA HISTORICAL REVIEW PROGRAM - RELEASE IN FULL
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SOVIET MILITARY AND CIVIL AVIATION POLICIES FOREWORD
The studies contained in this volume were prepared at thc request of the Presidents Air Policy Commission.
In order lo maintain uniformity in preparation, the information was collected on thc basis of questionnaires, copies of which are bound at thc end of the volume. The questionnaires may be opened at the side of thc volume and used concurrently Inthe reports. Omissioneport of an Item included in lhe questionnaires indicates that lhe question was inapplicable or that satisfactory information is
The two documents in this volume are based largely on data supplied from the Office of the Director of Intelligence. USAF. Tills material has been supplemented by additional information available lo Central Intelligence Agency from other sources The opinions expressed in this study, therefore, are not necessarily the views of the USAF.
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY7
iE^ET
SOVIET MILITARY AIR POLICY SUMMARY
AGENCIES INVOLVED IN MILITARY AIR POLICY
There are numerous agencies in the Soviet Union which participate in theand implementation of military air policy, the most important of which are the Council of Ministers, the Ministry of Armed Forces, thc Armed Forces General Staff, the Main Administrations of the Soviet Air Force and thc Soviet Navy, and the Civil Air Fleet. The State Planning Commission and the Academy of Sciences of thc USSRexercise such functions, as alsoonsideiable number of theinistrieson thc Council of Ministries. Since information as to the interrelationships among agencies involved in military air policy is almost completely lacking, what follows is primarily speculation.
Major policy decisions probably arc made at the very top level, which would go beyond the Council of Ministers into the Politburo itself. Once decision had been reached In thc Politburo, acceptance in the Council of Ministers wouldoregone conclusion. Each ministry would make not* of the requirements which affect itsoperations, so that such matters as production of aircraft, electronicsand any other materials needed by the air program could be included in the plant which each ministry must submit to lhe State Planning Commissionhe OOSPLAN Commission is responsible lor thc preparation of quarterly, yenrly, and five-year plans and for the supervision of the fulfillment of the plans after their Hpproval by the Council of Ministers. This commission is believed toajor role InmiUtary aviation policy.
The Academy of Sciences, in general, governs science and research,ajor factor in thel air policy with respect to the research which must precede thc development of new aircraft and related equipment
Within the Ministry of Aimed Forces, coordination of air policy with that of the military programhole is probably handled by the Minister ln council with his deputies, who include the Chiefs of the Air Force. Ground Forces. Naval Porccs, and Rear Services. In addition to the Chief of the Armed Forces General StafT. This latter officer functions as first deputy minister. In most respects, il is believed that thc sir arm r< mains subordinate lo the ground force high command.
REI-ATIVE IMPORTANCE OF AIR IN NATIONAL DEFENSE
The Soviet high command appears to be putting principal reliance for defense on the mass strength of ground armies, which means that the sir force will continue toajor tactical role. During Worldhe Soviet Air Force was organized and employed as an instrument for direel and immediate support of thc ground forces. In this role, the air force was much larger nnd more important than the Soviet Navy, but still far less Important In Russian military thinking than wore thc ground armies.
CURRENT TRENDS WITHIN THE AIR FORCE
Within the air force itself, it is believed first priority ii being given to thcof an interceptor fighter force based on jet aircraft, and second priority to creation of an effective long-range bomber force.
MILITARY AIR IN FOREIGN RELATIONS
The Soviet Air Force has not been used in an "international" armed force in the true sense, althougheasure of control in satellite countries such as Poland, the occupying Soviet air units have operated with, but have always controlled, the satellite units. The Soviet Union does not coordinate its staff planning with other nations, nor did it do so with the Allies even during the war.
It is evident that the Soviets are exploiting to the maximum the aviation material acquired during the war andesult of their occupation of Western Germany. Skilled German personnel have been recruited by the USSR to further its postwar program. The Soviet Union isosition to take advantage of Swiss. Swedish, ana Ciech skills in thc production of precision instruments This is not to imply that the Soviet Union Is dependent upon outside sources for the materials needed to support its air force. It will turn to these sources as necessary, however, while It Improves its own aeronautical Industry.
FISCAL
With regard to preparation of the military air budget, the State Planningproposes the annual allocation of funds to the aimed forcesart of the overall allocation of funds and resources under the Five-Yearetailed annual budget Is prepared by thc Minister of Finance under direction of thc Council offor approval by the Supreme Soviet.
No information Is available to Indicate thc extent to which expenditures for the military establishment are borne by other ministries, but the fact that this Is done is Inherent in the adjustment of the entire economy of the country to the requirements of national defense.
RESEARCH AND DKVKI-OPMENT
Research and detelopment in the air force is carried out by thc Chief Engineer of the Soviet Air Force who directs these research institutes One of these develops new aircraft types and improvements on existing types, another to devoted to armament, and the third to aircraft materials. Research in addition lo thai conducted within lhe air force is controlled primarily by thc Academy of Sciences, mentioned above. The Academy, which includes numerous installations, is concerned principally withof theoretical research and basic science In most cases developmental work is turned over to the research institutes operated by the various Industries. Emphasis on the furtherance of jet. turboprop, and rocket engine design continues unabated, as do research and production In the field of electronics.
The Soviet aircraft industry is fully capable of building andowerful air force, given appropriate priorities. The industry is supportedtrong economy which suffered substantially during the war, but which is fast recovering and will soon begin to expand beyond its prewar dimensions. In the past, development of thewas hampered by inadequate supplies of aluminum. Soviet aluminum production rose, however,0 metric tons00 metric tonshe goal of the Five-Year Planetric tons
ADEQUACY OF GOVERNMENTAL STRUCTURE IN MILITARY AIR POLICY MATTERS
In commenting on the over-all efficiency of the governmental structure in the establishment and Implementation of military air policy, the absence of firm datathat conclusions be based on conjecture.
Efficiencyelative term, and in comparison with the best of American standards there are many aspects in which the Soviet governmental structure could be considered inefficient. What Is involved is the type of inefficiency inherent In any highlygovernment which discourages initiative and necessitates that many minor as well as major decisions be made at the very top levels of government.
A highly centralized system of exercising governmental power gains In effectiveness, however, since It can channelize lhe amount of effort necessary to gain any desired objective. The decisions as to military air policy can be made In the Politburo, and the handful of men responsible for such decisions areosition to see that the entire Soviet economy is organized to execute the policy decided upon, should such prove necessary.
While there may be considerable argument concerning thc efficiency of the Soviet syslem. there is less dispute concerning thc effectiveness of the Soviet Union inits military air polky. The success with which the Soviet Air Force recovered from the brink of annihilation during the early part of World War II is evidence of this. In thc midst of combat, the Soviet Air Force reorganized, re-equipped, and developedighting force, which was markedly inferior to thc German Air Force, to one which, by the close of the war, was nol only markedly superior In numbers but was also fast approaching equal quality In both aircraft and crews.
Another indication of the effectiveness of the Soviet structure in theof policy is the apparent successidespread program to develop and produce operational Jet aircraft.
Soviet leaders demonstrated their ability to devise and adapt air policy to changing circumstances during World War II.
Since thceorganization of the armed services has given the airore important position lhan it ever had previously, even though evidence to date does not indicate that this has meant complete independence of the air urm from ground force control.
5 the major operating problems racing Soviet air have changed materially. In view of the present world situation and demonstrated wartime weaknesses or the
Ijay. 1
MILITARY AVIATION POLICY
1. In general, the agencies of primary military Interest are: Council ol Ministers Ministry of Armed Forces Armed Forces General Stall Main Administration of Soviet Navy
Air Arms of the Soviet Naval Fleets Civil Air Fleet
Main Administration of Soviet Air Force Military Council Tactical Air Armies Military District Airh Air Army
Air Force of the Airborne Forces Fighter Air Defense Force
The State Planning Commission and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR exercise functions which relate to military air policy, as doonsiderable number of theinistries represented on the Council of Ministries. To one degree or another, these could include the ministries of;
Armaments Aviation Industry Chemical Industry Co mm unons
Communications Equipment luduslry Construction Materials Light Industry
Machine and Instrument Construction
Machine Tools Construction
Material Reserves
Oil Industry. Eastern Regions
Transport
Construction of Military and Naval Enterprises Electrical (Equipment) Industry Heavy Machine Buildinglairs Labor Reserves
Oil Industry. Western and Southern Regions
Road and Construction Building
Rubber
State Security
Transport Machine Building
nformation as to the interrelationships among agencies Involved in theand implementation of military air policy is almost completely lacking, and what follows Is primarily speculation.
Major policy decisions probably are decided at the very top level, which would go beyond the Council of Ministers into the Politburo itself. Once decision had been reached in the Politburo, acceptance in the Council of Ministers wouldoregone conclusion.
Each ministry would make note of the requirements which affected its particular operations, so that such matters as production of aircraft, electronics equipment,materials, trucks, and all other materials needed by the air program could be included in the plans which each ministry must submit lo the State Planning Commission.
Within the Ministry of Armed Forces, coordination of air policy with that of the military programhole probably is handled by the Minister in council with his deputies, who Include the chiefs of the Air Force, Ground Forces. Naval Forces, and Rear Services, plus the chief of the Armed Forces General Staff. This latter officer functions as first deputy minister.
Thc scope of activities of the Armed Forces General Staff as regards military air policy is not known, but this staff, headed by Its Chief of staff, is responsible forplanning and coordination within the Ministry of Armed Forces.
The Main Operations Administration of the Armed Forces General Slaft is charged with thc fmal preparation of strategic plans before their submission to the Chief of thc General Staff and the Minister of Armed Forces, and thus is directly concerned with air policy.
Other agencies of the Armed Forces General staff, most of which may have some relation to air policy are:
Main Intelligence Administration Signal Communications Administration Organization and Mobilization Administration Fortified Areas Administration Topographic Administration Historical Administration
Eighth Administration (Coding and Decoding) Affairs Administration
Within the Soviet Air Force thc policy-making body is the Military Council, which Includes the Commander in Chief of the Soviet Air Force, his Chief of Staff, the Chief of Rear Services, the Chief Engineer, and the Chief of the Political Administration.
The commander of the Naval Air Force is subordinate to the Commander in Chief of the Soviet Navy, who is one of the deputy ministers of the Ministry of Armed Forces. The generals commanding the air arms of thc individual fleets are subordinate to the commander of the respective fleets to wlUch they are assigned, and also to the Commander in Chief of thc Naval Air Force, but informationlacking as to how these relationships work out in practice.
SECRET
The Academy of Sciences, in general, governs science and research,ajor factor in the Implementation of air policy with respect to the research which must precede the development of new aircraft and related equipment.
Economic mainsprings of the Soviet economy is the Stale Planning(GOSPLAN).
The Soviet Constitution5 provides: The economic life of thc USSR Is determined and directedtate Plan of national economy with the aim ofthe public wealth, of steadily raising the material and cultural standard of the working people, and of strengthening the independence of the USSR and its capacity for defense." .
Thc GOSPLAN commission hasembers elected from among the leading industrial workers, scientists, and specialists. Its task is to prepare quarterly, yearly and five-year plans and present them for approval lo the Council of Ministers; tofulflllmrnt of the plans and to work out solulions to the practical andproblems involved in economic planning.
The principal task of the commission is the coordination of the different schemes and branches of the Soviet economy. While this commissionajor role in Implementing military aviation policy, Its complicated organization of more thanepartments and bureaus apparently handles the problems involvediecemeal basis. ThereGroup of Aviotransport" in lhe "Department of Aviotransport and Motorul no other agency has "aviation" in its title. Presumably some of the military air policy matters are considered in the "MobiliiaiWn Department"
. (I) Before and during World War II the Soviet Air Force was designed, organized, and employed as an instrument for direct and immediate support of the ground forces. In this role, the air force was much larger and more important than thc Soviet Navy, but sllll far less important in Russian military thinking than were the ground armies.
The Soviet high command still appears to be putting principal reliance for defense on the mass strength of ground armies, which means the air force willloajor tactical role.
Within the air force Itself, it is believed first priority is being given to the development of an interceptor fighter force based on Jet aircraft, and second priority to creation of an effective long-range bomber force.
(2) The Soviet Air Force has not been used in an "international" armed force in the true sense, althougheasure of control in satellite countries sucholand, the occupying Soviet air units have operated with, but always controlling the
The stumbling block In the formation of the air portion of the UN armed forces has been Soviet insistence on equal participation by each Security Council member, an important consideration in view of Chinas weakness and the current status of lhe French Air Force.
The Soviet Union docs not coordinate its staff planning with other nations, nor did It do so with the Allies even during the war.
The Soviet Union recentlyajor reorganization ofarmed forces without bothering to advise the Rumanian general staff as to what was in prospect.
The Soviet Air Force benefitedajor degree from foreignand material resources during World War II. not only from the thousands offurnished under the lend-lease program, but also from motor vehicles, explosives, electronics equipment, vast quantities of aluminum and petroleum products. Including blending agents for aviation fuel.
Soviet development of Improved postwar conventional type aircraft undoubtedly has been aided by the items of American equipment available for their use, including the twos which were interned
The USSR obtained much that can be put to advantageous use as the result of its occupation of Eastern Germany. Captured Items Included newand prototype models with which the Germans were experimenting, as well as research centers and aviation plants. Large numbers of skilled German aviation scientists, engineers, and technicians have been recruited by the USSR lo further its postwar program.
The Soviet Union isosition to take advantage of Swiss, Swedish, and Czech skills in the production of precision instruments required by the air force.
Considerable effort is being expended to develop sources of aluminum and enlarge the petroleum industry.
It Is not to be implied from the above that the Soviet Union isupon outside sources for the materials needed to support its air force, The Soviet Union will turn to outside sources as necessary, however, while it Improves Its own aeronautical industry.
The Soviet Union docs not release any of Its air designs to foreign nations, but itolicy of equipping satellite countries with Russian aircraft, usually older models. The Yugoslav Air Force, however, has some of the newest of Soviet aircraft, which may indicate that the USSR is willing to provide effective support for an air force which Is considered "thoroughly reliable."
There is no Indication to dale that Soviet aircraft are beingin any of the satellite countries,ew YAK's in Yugoslavia
nhe People's Commissariat of Defense and the People's Commissariat of the Navy were combined in the People's Commissariat of the Armedlater was designated the Ministry of Armed Forces. As part of the reorganization it appears that the air. ground, navy, and rear services were given coequal administrative status. Prior to this, the Soviet Army Air Force had been subordinate to thc ground forces, and each of the four major fleets of the Soviet Navy had its own fleet air arm.
Armed Forces, or.possibly, to the Council of Ministers itself
*
The air force may have
During the balance6 it became apparent that the Civil Air Fleet had been divorced from military control, directly responsible to the Ministry of Armed Forces, or, posslblv. to the
been granted some measures of autonomy, such as In the field of research andbut it is believed that In most respects the air arm remains subordinate to the ground force high command.
The Naval Air Force continues to be an integral part of each of the four SovietArctic, Baltic, and Black Sea.
the air force, ground forces, and navy are all part of theof Armed Forces, it can be assumedeasure of top-level coordinationpolicy matters is ach,eved either among the deputy ministers or the ArmedStaff.
Within thc Soviet Air Force the Military Council Is the advisory and policy-making body, but it has no naval air force representation.
The Soviet Navy has no aircraft carriers, and, for the most part the Naval Air Force uses thc same type equipment and has thc same type organization as does the Soviet Air Force. Most of the Soviet naval air effort in World War II wasin toint operation with the Soviet Air Force in tactical engagements with the German Army and German Air Force. It is believed, however, that an expanded role Is In prospect for the Naval Air Force.
he Soviet Air Forces included anpersonnel0 aircraft in operational units, oferetypes
A totalircraft are stationed In Europe, outside thein Korea and Manchuria;ithin the USSR, of which an estimatedin the Far
The air strength Is estimated toighterround attack aircraft,ombers. These are divided by major command as follows:
Tactical Air Armies andaircraft
District Air Forces
18th Air Army (Longircraft
Fighter Defense Force[fiOO aircraft
Naval Airaircraft
specific information is available lo indicate that the USSRsystem of air training similar to that of the US Air National Guard and Aira compulsory tour of service ln the Armed Forces by all physically qualifieda continuing Soviet military policy, thc need foromprehensive reserveprogram Is partially removed. Nothing is known of refresher courses givenair force personnel for maintaining their military proficiency. In allthere is some form of refresher training.
Indications areonsiderable number of former military pilots are currently working for the Osoaviakhim (Society for the Promotion of Aviation andn Important subdivision of which is the Aero Club organization
HJ ,DetaUsne trainlnBivil Air Fleet personnel are not known, but thc quality of training of flying personnel Is thought to be the best in the Soviet Union.
o specific answer lo this question is possible because ll is Impossible lo calculate the national income of the USSR in comparative monetary terms; because budget allocations to the armed services arc not truly indicative of the amount of money which Is spent on the military; and because no data are available to Indicate what proportion of the armed services budget allocation Is spent for military air.
In general,7 Soviet budget, in billions of rubles, is asstate
Planned slate
National
Ministry of Armed0
Maintaining governmental
Payment on government9
Scientific research
Unaccounted3
When3 billion rubles unaccounted for in the expenditures budget are added lo1 billion rubles surplus of planned revenues over planned expenditures, and6 billion rubles surplushe USSRotal ofillion rublesmore than the published budget for the Ministry of Armed Porccsfor uses concerning which no information Is available.
The Russian ruble has an "official" exchangeo the US dollar, but thc diplomatic rate Isubles lo the dollar. Both of these figures arc purely arbitrary, as the ruble is not used In foreign exchange and thus its taternaUonal value is undetermined. On the basis of prices which Russians must pay for imported goods sold In Soviet stores, it Is estimated that the consumer's ruble Is worthents, oro the dollar. Purchasing power of rubles expended by the government Is considered to be much greater than the purchasing power of those spent by Individuals, since the government Is able to scl cost prices on thc materials il buys.
Basically, of course, the entire matterookkeeping proposition, since thc governmentan his salary whether heetal worker in an aircraft plantergeant in the air forces.
Decisions with respect to expenditures can be made on the basis of national policy without regard to monetary costs. The desired goals, plus availability of skilled workers and lhe necessary materials, arc the imporlantthc bookkeepingr. as the Soviets would put it. the public interest rather lhan cost or profit, is the guiding criterion.
seGjbt
All funds for civilian research, educational institutions, and thcindustry are provided by the government
Thc State Planning Commission, which coordinates the plannedof the economy of the Soviet Union, proposes the annual allocation of funds to the armed forcesart of Uie over-all allocation of funds and resources under the Five-Ycaretailed annual budget Is prepared by the Minister of Finance under lhe direction of the Council of Ministers and is approved by the Supreme Soviet a *
SEJReT
The funds as provided by the budget are made available by theof Finance lo the Minister of Armed Forces. Within the Ministry of Armed Forces, thc Chief of the Main Finance Administration of thc Armed Forces handles all fiscal matters.
No information is available to indicate the extent to whichfor the military establishment arc borne by other ministries, but the fact that this is done Is inherent in the adjustment of the entire economy of the USSR to the requirements of national defense.
Within thc Soviet Air Force, thc Main Administration of Rear Services (GUT) is charged with the administration of finance, as well as supply and construction. Within the GUTinance Administration responsible for the payment of personnel and for lhe budget of supplies and materials used by lhe Soviet Air Force.
It may well be that thc air force budget originally is worked out by the Finance Administration of OUT, then analyzed and approved by the Military Council of the Soviet Air Force, after which it is submitted lo the Ministry of Armed Forces for approval and forwarding to the State Planning Commission.
he Chief Engineer of thc Soviet Air Force, one of five members of the Military Council of the Air Force, directs three research institutes through the Main Administration of Engineer Service (GUIAS). These are;
Scientific Research Institute of the Soviet Air Force, which conducts research for development of new aircraft types and forof existing types. Scientific Research Institute for Aircraft Armament Scientific Research Institute for Aircraft Materials.
The Chief Engineer also is responsible for an Inventionswhich inspects and studies inventions submitted to the Soviet Air Force, andonstruction bureau and experimental workshop for developmental work. Within ihe Administration of Repair Servicecientific Experimental Institute of Aircraft Repairs, which serves both lhe field repair and major repairs departments,epartment for Research and Introduction of New Repair Methods.
No Information is available to indicate whether the Soviet Navyany research and development in military aviation.
For the most part, the Naval Air Force has employed aircraft of the same models and type as those utilized by the Soviet Air Force. It may thus be that development of new types and other research has been left largely to the Soviet Air Force.
n order to answer this question it is necessary to examine the general organization of research in thc Soviet Union.
Because of the centralized nature of the government of the USSR, it is possible that fixing of priorities between research on different problems of military significance may be resolved at lhe very highest level, perhaps even in the Politburo.
For most purposes, however, ihc controlling agency Is the Academy of Sciences of lhe USSR, which is responsible forive-year plan listing the most important scientific problems to be solved. For each problem there is listed its history, its present status, proof of its importance lo lhe nationalist of
subproblems which must first be solved In order to further solution of the basicand the names of the scientists charged with working out this problem.
The Academy of Sciences, which includes more thanarge number of commissions, laboratories, societies, museums, and libraries, is concerned primarily with problems of theoretical research and basic science. It handles some of the problems In its own institutes, while others are assigned toin the institutions of higher learning.
In some instances, the Academy of Sciences carries the results of Its experimentation through the developmental stage, but in many cases the developmental work as well as the actual testing is turned over to the research Institutes operated by the various ministries.
The Ministry of Aviation Industry, for instance, has several institutes for aviation research and development. It is believed that these institutes arefor the technological work necessary to develop practical application of the results of research conducted under direction of the Academy of Sciences.
Research Institutes ot the aircraft industry can be divided into five categories. In the first category are the principal scientific research institutes. These include, in addition to the institutes of the Soviet Air Force already mentioned, the following:
Central Aero-Hydro-Dynamic Institutehich deals with all questions of aircraft design (air frames and engines) especially from an aerodynamic point of view. It has an experimental factory attached to it and claims to have one of the world's largest wind tunnels.
Central Aircraft Engine Institute (TsIAM) Soviet Union Aircraft Building Material Institutehich studies materials tor air frames and engines. It may be closely associated with, orthe same agency as the Scientific Research Institute for Aircraft Materials of the Soviet Air Force.
Scientific Research Institute of the Civil Air Fleethere are additional institutes dealing with such problems as instrument construction. labor utilization In factories, etc.
In the second category are the experimental design bureaus directed by the principal Soviet aircraftLt. Gen. Ilyushin. Lt. Gen. Yakovlev, Major General Lavochkin. and Major General Tupolev. Acro-engine design bureaus areby such engine designers as Major Gen. Mikulin. Major Gen. Shvetsov andn. Klimov.
The research laboratories attached to the higher aviation training establishments, such as the Moscow Aviation Institute, compose the third category.
Every large aviation factory has an experimental laboratory. These laboratories vary in size and importance, but together they comprise the fourth category.
The fifth category includes other research Institutes, principalof which is to modify and perfect existing basic aircraft models. There have been ten modifications, for instance, of the YAK-9. These research institutes also design
anil turn out. in small experimental series, new aircraft types for series production when and as the industry can accept them.
A "Blstrop" Commission is reported to be the supreme Sovietin Germany on matters of scientific research, the evacuation of technicians and scientists, and the further developmenteapons. This commission is under chargeajor general and probablyoordinated effort No information is available as to which Soviet ministry or research agency controls thc "Blstrop"
Considering the type of political and economic organization which exists in the Soviet Union, there is no purely private research and development.
With thc possible exception of fundamental research in Institutions of higher learning, it Is believed that centralized control In this Held is complete.priorities probably arc laid down by the highest authority.
Thc Academy of Sciences determines priorities In basic and theoretical research Priorities for development of new models and equipment probably areby the Ministry of Armed Forces and issued as orders by higher authority to the various industrial ministries concerned.
irm data on this subject are lacking, but some evidence is provided by the recent appearances of Jet aircraft In thc Soviet Air Force. One jet fighter was seen in the6 Moscow Air Show,et lighters of two types performed in the May Day paradeonsidering that the one seen in6rototype, the Soviet Union went into production rapidly, and Immediately began to equip ils fighter regiments with jet aircraft
On the basis of World War II experience, once the first experimental aircraft had been produced, the time taken to prepare il for the state test, and, therefore, for series production, was usually fairly short. Thc average time for fighters was from three to six months and for bombers from five to ten months. In the case of lheor instance, there was an interval of onealf months from thc production of the first experimental aircraft to its stale test, then an inUarval of three months until the production of the first series. With theix or seven months elapsed between the production of lhe first experimental alrcrafl and that of the first series. In the case of thendircraft, however, production of each of these twin-engine bombers was held up for many months because of engine difficulties.
A considerable number of Soviet air regiments currently arc believed to be operating with obsolete or obsolescent aircraft, long after improved types are known to have been developed. This mayatter of policy rather than necessity, however, since there is evidence to Indicate the Soviet Union tends to build reserves of ils more modern types, withholding them from operational use while older models are being used by tactical units. This policy was noted on occasion tn the closing period of World War TX
he Soviet aircraft Industry is fully capable of building anda powerful air force. The Industry is supportedtrong economy whichsubstantially during the war. but which Is fast recovering and will soon begin to expand beyond Its prewar dimensions. Thc USSR possesses sufficient skilled man-
power, materials, and equipment to satisfy the requirements of the aircraftigh rate of operation over an extended period, given appropriate priorities.
Estimated total aircraft production in the USSR86 Is compared with US production below:
Milllary aircraft and commercial transport type*nd larger! only. Tout US8 wasroken down as follows: Military.commercial: lm>tMte-IaceSS, S-place planes,
During the war years combat types represented1 of tola aircraft output in the USSR
In the past, development of the Soviet aircraft Industry was hampere by Inadequate supplies of aluminum. Lend-lease aluminum was an important facto in Soviet wartime aircraft production. Soviet production of aluminumetric tons0 metric tonsnd the goal of the Five-Yearetric tons
Considering the plnnned expansion of aluminum capacity and th possibility of employing substitute materials, It is believed that,artime productioi program were begun today, the Soviet Union could manufacture aircraft at the rat.0earssuming the same composition of output as exists at thc close of World War II.
(3) Procurement is considered to be centralizedarked degree
Control and planning of all Soviet Air Force activities, Includingelating to logistics, are vested in the Commander in Chief of thc Soviet Air Force, who i. chairman of thc Military Council, composed of chiefs of the majorhe Soviet Air Force.
The Main Administration of Rear Services of Soviet Air Force head quarters probably obtains all standard supplies from the major command known a: Rear Services, which has the same organizational position as the army, air force, an< navy under the Ministry of Armed Forces. The air force is believed to deal with Uu Main Administration of Intendance in Rear Services headquarters on matters of quai termaster supply.
Definite information is lacking, but it Is possible that the Soviet AL Force deals directly with the various production ministries for procurement ofir equipment, including aircraft and engines.
la
During the past war. the Soviet Air Force maintained two types of centralized rear-area stores: Special Air Force Stores, which were stocked with aircraft engines, spare parts, ammunition, and other types of specialized equipment used solely by air force units; and General Stores, from which Ihc air force was supplied with food, clothing, and other nonspec tall zed supplies.
No information is available lo indicate thc extent to which Air Armies or Military District Air Forces may be authorized to obtain certain suppliesocal basis Considering transportation difficulties. local supplies are obtained wherebut It is considered that the administrative work connected with such procurement still may be quite centralized.
he USSR is convinced of thc highly important part played byin the development and suslulned operation of an efficient air force. Thc quality of air training has been low in comparison with US standards becauseertain amount ol big behind the Western Powers in development and utilization of the highly technical aspects of an air power. However, this situation is showing signs of steady improvement. Confirmed reports indicate that thc Soviets are using German military and technical personnel as advisers and instructors in the use of captured German equipment.
The Soviet air training system al the close of thc war conformed substantially to that of the other major powers. By far its outstanding quality is ils flexibility. This quality will prove most valuable now that the Soviet Air Force, and thus ils training program, musl be designed for possible future war.
Compared with the Western Powers, (lying training in the Soviet Air Force Is weakest in the techniques of bad-weather flying, aerial gunnery, formation Hying, and high-level precision bombing. Soviet training is probably stronger in operations under poor field conditions, although this has. in the past at least, probably been due to necessity rather than design. II is significant thai lhe Soviets havethe ability to accomplish much under highly adverse conditions.
Among service schools concerned with military aviation arc twoot the General Staff, three branch air academics, three higher military schools <for advanced pilotnd seven officer candidate schools which cover pilot training, technical specialties, and aerial reconnaissance.
Paramilitary training, as exemplified by that conducted in the "Aeroeems to be as vigorous as it was before thc war. Aero Clubs formed, prior to the war. the most important subdivision of the Osoatnakhim (Society for lheof Aviation andutwardly, this is an Independent civil body, bul it is actually paramilitary in nature. Practically all candidates for Aero Club membership come from the industrial working class and arc members of the KOMSOMOLYouth Organization).
3nnounced the opening In Moscowew high-level aviation academy with three departments: Aircraft, power plants, and instruments. The list of faculty members included Iiyushin, Klimov, Lavochkin. Nikoyan. Tunolev, Yakovlev, and Zhukovsky. Students qualified to take Ihc training at Ihls academy must be college graduates wilh seven years' experience In lhe aviation
industry, including at least two years in executive positions. The faculty members aie top-flight aircraft and engine designers of the USSR. The caliber of these men. plus the impressive entrance requirements, indicate that the Soviet Union is planning an intensive campaign to Improve the civilian element of the aviation Industry This may indicate further intensified effort on the part of the Russians to improve both design and production methods in the Soviet aviation industry.
ome indication of thc degree to which the USSR emphasizesis given by two decrees promulgated in7 by the Supreme Soviet providing punishments for the disclosure of any Soviet stalescientific,or political.
Thc prescribed penalties, confinement in labor correction cam pi for varying periods, are more severe for responsible citizens than for ordinary Soviet citizens
Among Information classified by the decrees as "state secrets" are: Any facts or figures concerning the size, strength, or dispersal of armed forces or reserves, plans concerning exports or imports of certain goods; production of nonfenous and rare metals and earths; "information concerning negotiations, relations, and agreements of the USSR with foreignnd advances "in all spheres of science technology, and national economy."
Disclosure of any of thLs information by officials in circumstances that "cannot be qualified as ircoson to the motherland or espionage is punishable by imprls onmcntabor concentration camperiodohe decree said.
Betrayal of military secrets by servicemen, if not treason, isby imprisonment ofoears, while ordinary citizens disclosing state secret; may be punished by labor camp termsoears. Disclosure of scientific data can leaderm ofoears.
"State secrets" are defined so broadly that it would appear thst thesewith the activities of thc secreta comprehensivefor protection of the security of military data and the results of research and
development.
4. Since data on these subjects are almost completely lacking, any answer can be little more than conjecture.
Efficiencyelative term, and in comparison with the best of American standards there are many aspects in which thc Soviet governmental structure could be considered inefficient What is involved is the type of Inefficiency Inherent in any highly centralized government which discourages Initiative and necessitates that many minor as well as major decisions be made at the very top levels of government.
A highly centralized system of exercising governmental power gains in effective ncss, however, since it can channelize the amount of effort necessary to gain any desirec objective.
Thc decisions as lo military air policy can bo made in the PoUtburo. and the handful of men responsible for such decisions arcosition to see that the entire Soviet economy is organized to execute thc policy decided upon, should such prove necessary.
While there may be considerable argument concerning the efficiency of the Soviet system, there is less dispute concerning the effectiveness of the Soviet Union In implementing its military air policy. The success with which the Soviet Air Force recovered from the brink ot annihilation during the early part of World War II isof this. In thc midst of combat, thc Soviet Air Force reorganized, re-equipped, and developedighting force, which was markedly inferior to thc German Air Force, to one which, by the close of thc war, was not only markedly superior in numbers but was also fast approaching equal quality in both aircraft and crews.
Another indication of the effectiveness of thc Soviet structure In theof policy is the apparent successidespread program to develop and produce operational jet aircraft.
Soviet leaders demonstrated their ability to devise and adopt air policy to meet changing circumstances during World War II.
Since theeorganization of thc armed services has given the airore important position than it ever had previously, even though evidence to date does not indicate this has meant complete independence of the air arm from the ground force control.
5 the major operating problems facing Soviet military aviation have changed materially. In view of the present world situation and demonstrated wartime weaknesses of the Soviet Air Force, Soviet military air policy should be oriented around the tasks of creating an interceptor force capable of coping with long-range strategic attack, and the developmentong-range striking arm of Its own. Solution of both of these problems currently Is being given high priority, it Is believed, but the success achieved probably cannot be demonstrated by anything short of actual combat.
There is no basisiscussion of "economical use ofoth because of lack of detailed information onnd because the Soviet economy is not based on "money" in thc conventional sense.
CIVIL AIR POLICY USSR
UK*
Probably decide, najor policy
PLANNINGSPLAN1
I
Dept.of Aviotransportotor Transport
ACADEMY of SCIENCES
Over-all direction Of
k
Group Aviotransport
SOCIETY POft PROMOTION HPH AND CHEKlSTBvl
Pronotea air clubs as parasiilitary activity
Hi HISTftT Of
ASHED KORCES
ofNDUSTRY
Responsible fo.-piOCUtt lor. of aircraft
AIR
porces GEN'L STAFF
permits Controls air routes Services, irects research Controls training
MAIN ADM. SOVIET AIR FORCE
MAIN ADM. NAVY
PORCE of .AIRBORNE PORCF*
20
CIVIL AVIATION POLICY
A Civil Air Policies.
policy of the USSR as regards civil aviation is toarge andair transport system, which will not only enable rapid communicationseparated sections ot the Soviet Union and with satellite countries, buteserve organization ready to augment Soviet military air power. Sovietpolicy, furthermore, sacrifices thc development of world-wide air transportto the immediate military and civil needs within thc USSR. Determinationand complete control ot all civil aviation arc vested in the government.control is effected through three independent organizations, each controllingof Soviet nonmilitary aviation. These organizations are:
Upravleniue Crazhdanskovo Voztiushnovo Flota (JGVEMainof the Civil Air Fleet) under the Minister of Armed Forces,
Central Soviet Council of the Osoaviakhim (Society for the Promotion of Aviation and Chemistry);
Main Administration of the Glcv Sevmorput (Main Administration of the Northern Sea Route).
The use ot Soviet civil aviation as an instrument of national policy is evident in many ways. One typical example is provided by the postwar civil air agreementsthe USSR and the Soviet satellite countries.iscussion of these agreements is contained in the reply to. of this report)
Soviet Government controls all aspects of civil aviation.
a. Thc government plans and controls the development and expansion of scheduled air transport. The Fourth Five-Year Plan callstatute miles) of air routes0 (an Increase of. The most important lines are to be equipped for year-round and night flying. Sixteen airports will be, reconstructed for use by heavy high-speed planes. Twenty air stations are lo be built or rebuilt The Chief of the Civil Air Fleet has announced that an attempt will be made to increase passenger and freight traffic within the next two or three years to eight to ten times the prewar figure. It is estimated that0 civil aviationurnover performance00 metric tons of freight and baggageassengers. This would indicate an annual goal for the near future of more0ons of freight and baggage, andassengers.
b Control of nonscheduled air transport Is maintained by the government through all three civil aviation organizations. The small aircraft units of the various ministries, which perform nonscheduled operations, are detailed to these variousfrom the UGVF and the Osoaviakhim and arc considered to beart of their parent organizations. Thc majority of the air operations undertaken by the Northern Sea Route are probably nonscheduled in character.
(lying, as it is known In the US, Is nonexistent in theystem of flying clubs controlled by the Osoainakhim, which mightwith the Civilian Pilot Training Program of the US
aircraft manufacturing in the Soviet Union is controlled by theAviationertain amount of supervisory control of the aircraftalso maintained by thc Ministry of Armed Forces, State Planning Commission,of Sciences, and the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet. Thescope of the control exerted by these agencies, however, is unknown. Thewhich had expanded to the maximum possible degree during World Wargoneeriod of readjustment. The Industry has probably reducedquantitatively and is now operating at peacetime levels. The designof large and medium-size air transports is progressing.
extensive research program is quite evidently In progress. Largeof German scientists and technicians, together with German researchbeen integrated In this program. The program Is directed by the leadingThere is evidence of emphasis on jet and rocket propulsion. (Eightpostwar types of Jet aircraft have beenrincipal control of allresearch in the Soviet Union rests with the Academy of Sciences. Thisis responsible for formulating Uie Five-Year Plan as it affects scientificaddition, the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet is specifically chargeddevelopment of all nonmilitary aircraft, and has its own aeronautical research) The Academy of Sciences is also responsible for determining theof all scientificonsiderable amount of this researchcarried out by Uie research institutes of the Ministry of Aircraft Industry. Acreresearch is also carried out by institutes subordinate lo the Ministry of
/. Aeronautical engineering education Is probably controlled by the Ministry
ol Higher Education.
g. The training of pilots and technicians for the GVF Is undertaken in schools of the Civil Air Fleet The following list shows the location of Civil Air Fleet Schools4 It is not known whether all these schools are now in operation.
LocaUon of Civil Air Fleet Schools
Alma
Training of foreigners Is limited to those of proven "political reliability" from the Soviet satellite countries.
22
Ii. Control of all export and import trade is exercised by the Sovietthrough the Ministry of Foreign Trade, which coordinates this activity with the State Planning Commission and thc Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Imports are of twotandard electronic equipment for use in aerial navigation is required in quantity and obtained under trade treaties,dvanced models of aircraft and power units are required in limited quantity for experimental purposes: they areunder individual contracts. Export of aeronautical equipment is extremely limited. Transport aircraft and spare parts have been authorized for export only to the dependent satellite countries and only in negligible quantities.
. The government controls and promotes the development of all airports and air navigational facilities. An ambitious program of airport construction.thc Installation of navigational aids, is contained in the current Soviet Five-Year Plan. (Seeost of the airports of the Soviet Union are controlled by the military forces; however, there are airfieldsurely nonmilitary nature which arc controlled by the Civil Air Fleet, Osoaviakhim, and the Northern Sea Route. Air navigation facilities are believed torimary responsibility of the Mainof the Civil Air Fleet. Some navigation facilities may be controlled by the Soviet Air Force and the Soviet Naval Air Force, but the extent of these holdings is not known. The Main Administration of the Northern Sea Rout* undoubtedly is responsible for the air navigation facilities in the Arctic regions.
- All aircraft in the Soviet Union are owned by the government. Primary air carrier in the Soviet Union la the Civil Air Fleet, which operates the majority of the scheduled air lines. In addition, there Is thc Mam Administration of the Northern Sea Rout* which operates some scheduled, but for the most part nonscheduled, flights In the Arctic regions. There is no competition between these two organizations and the USSR can be considered to have one government-owned air carrier. No foreign capital Is invested, except ln air lines Jointly owned by the USSR and certain foreign countries. These include the Soviet-Rumanian air line TARS, the Soviet-Hungarian air line Afazov-let. the Soviet-Yugoslav air line JUSTA. nnd the Sino-Soviet Aviation Corporation. None of these joint air lines, however, opsrstOI within the USSR.
h. The aircraft Industry of the Soviet Union is government owned and directed. Control of this industry is maintained through the Ministry of the Aviation Industry.
competition exists between the UGVF and theea Route.
protection of Soviet civil aviation is afforded byof foreign air lines into thcoviet air policy in the satelliteinvolves relations with other countries. The joint Soviet-satellite airnot permitted to operate into the USSR, have been authorized to seek airwith air lines of certain Western countries and to exchange services on aor flight-for-fllght basis with such countries.
Soviet civil aviation Is government owned, operating expenses areand income is absorbed by the government. It is probable, however, thatlines are not operatedoss, since salaries paid employees are low and facilities
provided an; far below US (Western) standards. Flight frequencies are regulated to insure full loads and fares charged (twice as much as those for rail travel) are high enough to cover operating costs. Ordinary passengers are required to buy theirfor casli and thc cost of travel for officials traveling on government business is charged to the agency they represent. Soviet policy since the end of World war II has been to promote actively all phases of civil aviation. The current Soviet Five-Year Plan includes objectives to be met in the production of new aircraft, construction and improvements of airports, and airport facilities, and the training of pilots, navigators, and technicians In night and instrument flying. The plan also calls for an extension of the domestic air network tooute milesncrease over prewarhis ambitious program has been adopted in order to link remote areas of economic Importance to the main traffic arteries and to further theof the Five-Year Planhole.
he Soviet objective is to replace its obsolete transport aircraft with modern types comparable to the postwar types produced by theewas appeared and Is destined to replace the lend-lease and Soviet built DC-3's, while two four-engine transportsndave been built which have characteristics of thendhese aircraft, which have not yet appeared in quantity, arc intended lor service on the main trunk lines throughout the USSR. The development of all aircraft is controlled by thc government, primarily through the Ministry of Aviation Industry; though some phases may be supervised by the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet.
transport aircraft in use by tho USSR, as far as known,of large numbers of US lend-leased DC-3's. While Sovietvisited US aircraft manufacturers and expressed interest in purchasing aConstellations, no firm orders have been placed since Soviet policy is to effectonly through the mediumomprehensive trade treaty, and theettlement of the US-USSR lend-lease account is the prerequisitean agreement
policy requires that all foreign air lines be excluded fromin the interest of national security. On the other hand, the USSR hasin organizing, equipping, and control ling civil air lines inand Yugoslavia, and in aiding the leestablishment of thc prewar PolishThis has been undertaken (a) in order toontinuing Sovietair communications In areas contiguous to the USSR, and (b) by promotingair agreements between these satellite countries to stimulate trade and topolitical and economic integration.
Soviet bilateral air agreements permitting Soviet air access into otherare unilateral in application, as foreign air lines are not permitted to enter the USSR. When the USSR encounters opposition to this type of agreementountry with which it desires airoint is selectedearby country to which both parties have access for an exchange of traffic on mutually agreed terms.
While Soviet policy requires scrupulous observance by foreign air lines of Soviet territorial integrity, the USSR nevertheless permitted its own air lines lo operate
SECJKT
an illicit commercial service in northern Iran after thc withdrawal of Soviet troops. This operation was terminated only recentlyormal protest from the IranianAnother example of indifference lo the rights of other countries is apparent in thc present organization of the Sino-Soviet air line. Thc formation of this air line9 resultedino-Soviet agreement providingointly owned monopoly of air servicesoint in the USSR and Slnkiang Province, China.
In practice, however, the company appears to be completely dominated by the USSRingle Chinese holding the title of Chairman of thc Board, but lacking any authority. Chinese pleas for company reorganization to giveair share in the air line have gone unanswered.
The USSR has entered into no multilateral air agreements and is not likely lo do so in the foreseeable future except on terms consonant with Soviet national policy.cat on the ICAO Council has been held in reserve for the USSR sinceof this organization, the USSR has declined membership. This is quitefor present Soviet air policy would not permit the USSR to comply with ICAO principles or regulations.
civil air policy is definitely influenced by military air requirements.of Russia's military forcesG is believed to have placed theof the Civil Air Fleet under thc Ministry ot Armed Forces. In thisit is independent of the Soviet Air Force and Soviet N'aval Air Force, butthe control of the military authorities.
Soviet civil air transport is certainly regardedilitary air asset. It is equally important in time of peace as an essential transport service,ommercial activity of economic and political value. For this reason, Soviet civil air transport does more than merely justify the maintenanceanufacturing industry.
The purely internal civil air policy of the USSR is in no way influenced by any foreign country. For the most part the international air policy of the USSR is also not affected by foreign influences, but the increasing resistance encountered by the USSR and Soviet satellites in their attempts to negotiate air agreements with nonsatellite countries is definitely affecting the implementation of Soviet policy. Westerncountries have refused to sign air agreements with satellite countries and the USSR, which do not provide reciprocal rights.
No detailed information is available on this subject. The budget for civil air is, however, believed to be included in that of the Ministry of Armed Forces, since this agency controls the UGVF.
See par. 4.
All institutions of higher education, including those dealing with aeronautics, are believed to be operated or controlled by the Ministry of Higher Education. Political indoctrination undoubtedlyigh place in the list of subjects. The formationigh-level aviation academy, to be located near Moscow, has recently been reported. The faculty list includes almost all the Important aircraft and aircraft-engine designers of the USSR.
SECRET
he government owns and operates its own aeronautical research andfacilities. Government control of these facilities is maintained through thcof Sciences, Ministry of Aircraft Industry, and the Ministry of Armed Forces.there is no specific information, it is known that the government program is extensive. At present the greatest emphasis is believed to be centered on Jet fighters, long-range bombers, and long-range heavy transports. This view is supported by the new aircraft seen ot the recent Aviation Day and May Day air shows. Believed to be of secondary importance is the development of radar and other ancillary equipment The degree of latitude given to research is not known. Control of theoretical research is maintained through the Academy of Sciences, which allocates the priority on all basic projects. Control of development research in aeronautics is probably vested in the Ministry of Aircraft Industry and the Ministry of Armed Forces. Under the political and economic system which exists in the Soviet Union, freedom of private research, in thc Western sense, does not exist.
omplete control of aircraft development, including financing offacilities, is vested in the government through the Ministry of Aircraft Industry.
Certain factories of the aircraft industry are believed to have research facilities which are carrying out development projects, but the majority of thc factory research is believed to be restricted to the development of new and better production methods
B. Civil Aik Organizations.
n all, there areinistries in the Soviet Government, and nearly all of these ministries are to some degree interested in civil aviation. The degree of interest varies from those ministries which merely use civil aircraft for passenger travel and freight transportation to that of the Ministry of Armed Forces, which actually has complete control of the Main Administration of thc Civil Air Fleet. Governmental agencies and ministries whichubstantial interest in Russian civil aviation arc believed to be as follows:
State Planning Commission Council of Ministers Academy of Sciences Ministry of Aviation Industry Ministry of Armed Forces
Armed Forces General Staff
Main Administration of the Soviet Air Force
Main Administration of the Soviet Navy
Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet
Air Force of the Airborne Forces Main Administration ot the Northern Sea Route Osoaviakhim
SEBRKT
B4f
essor degree lhe following agencies and ministries have interests in Russian
civil air:
Ministry ol Construction Materials
Ministry ol Communications
Ministry of Higher Education
Ministry of Heavy Machine Building
Ministry ol Machine and Instrument Construction
Ministry of Oil Industry, Eastern Regions
Ministry of State Security
Ministry of Transport
Main Administration of the Combined Sea and Land and Meteorological
Service Ministry of Foreign Trade Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of Military and Naval Enterprises Ministry of Electrical (Equipment) Industry Ministry of Light Industry Ministry of Machine Tool Construction Ministry of Road and Construction Machine Building Ministry of Transport Machine Building 2. artial answer can be given this question. Answers given are Incomplete and are based, in general, on deduction rather than on definite information.
PolitburaMajor policy decisions affecting Soviet civil aviation are probably decided at the very lop level In thc Politburo, which, although not an actual part of the Soviet Government structure. Is the Communist Party organ for the direction of the government. Acceptance of Politburo policyoregone conclusion.
Council of MinistersThis body is responsible for the Implementation of the over-all policy of the USSR, which includes civil aviation. Major policy decisions are given this organ by lhe Politburo.
State Planning Commission (GOSPLAN)economic mainspring of the Soviet economy is the State Planning Commission, which hasembers, elected from among the leading industrial workers, scientists, and specialists. Its task is to prepare quarterly, yearly, and five-year plans, and present them for approval to the Council of Ministers; to supervise fulfillment of the plan, and to submit solutions for the practical and methodological problems Involved in economic planning.
Principal work of the Commission is to coordinate the various plans with the numerous branches of Soviet economy involved.
While this Commissionajor role In implementing military and civil air policy, its complicated organization of more thanepartments and bureaus apparently handles its problemsiecemeal basis. ThereGroup aviotransport" in the "Department of Aviotransport and Motorhich apparentlyajor interest in the development of civil aviation.
Academy oforganization is responsible for the over-allof scientific research in the Soviet Union. In the fulfillment of this mission, the
Academy of Sciences mustertain degree direct the development of civil aircraft Just how much control this organization exerts on the scientific Institutes of the Aircraft Industry and the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet is not known.
Ministry of Aviation IndustryThis organization Is responsible for theof all aircraft in the Soviet Union. Considerable liaison obviously existsthe aircraft industry and the Academy of Science, the Soviet Air Force, Soviet Naval Air Force, and the Civil Air Fleet The exact degree of control exercised by the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet over the Ministry of Aircraft Industry is not known.
Ministry oj Armed ForcesThis is the ministry to which the Mainof thc Civil Air Fleet is believed to be subordinated. It Is. therefore, probably responsible for general over-all supervision and control of thc Civil Air Fleet.
Armed Forces General StaffThis body is responsible for military planning for the Ministry of Armed Forces, of which the Civil Air Fleetart.
Main Administration of the Soviet Air ForceAlthough this agency docs not have direct control of thc Civil Air Fleet, it doesertain degree influence UGVF policy. Just how this Influence Is effected is not known During the last war the Soviet Air Force (then the Red Army Air Force) had control of the GVF to the extent that directives as to thc use of UGVF units could be given the Chief of the Civil Air Fleet by the Chief ofh Air Army (then designated thc Long Range Force) Civil Air Fleet personnel could be withdrawn lor use inh Air Army.
Mom AdmintsfrafIon of the Sovietbody influences UGVF policyertain degree but UOVF units are not known to have been subordinated to the Navy. Navy interest In the Civil Air Fleet is probably centered In the Naval Air Force.
Mam Administration of the Civil Air Fleetthere are three agencies responsible for Soviet civil aviation, the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet is the chief motivating agency. It is the largest of the thice and is actuallyfor the Implementation of Soviet civil air policy.
The organization of the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet is not known in detail, but It Is believed lo be similar to the organization of the Mainof the Soviet Air Force. The following directorates of administration are known to exist:
Political
Technical Matters
Repairs
Construction
Foreign lines
Medical
Cadres
Inspector
I^gal
Editing and Publishing
A scientific research institute
The UGVF is specifically charged with the following: Control ol servicing, repair, and spare parts for ali aircraft of thc UGVF; Control of all air routes;
Survey, planning, and construction of new routes and airfields; Direction of operations with economic objectives; Planning future developments;
Direction of research and developmental work in civii flying;
Control of equipment and technical training;
Registration of aircraft;
Issue of permits to use civil aircraft;
Issue of permits for flights outside the Soviet Union;
Ratification of construction programs of subordinate territorial directorates;
Control of experiments In new types of transport aircraft, engines, balloons, gliders, and thc organization of series production of nonmllilary aircraft on government order, including technical control of special productive activity;
Organization of necessary signal communications;
Direction of training for flying and technical ground personnel;
Organization of medical services;
Organization of fire-fighting services;
Control of matters Involving foreign air traffic.
Air Force o/ the Airborne Forcesorganizationart of tho Soviet Air Force. As the name indicates, it is responsible for the planning and execution of all Soviet airborne operations. In the performance of its duties in war time, the Air Force of the Airborne Forces must draw some of its aircraft from the UGVF. The exact extent of liaison in peace lime is not known,lose tie is undoubtedly
Administration of the Northern Sea Routeorganization is one of the three independent organizations within thc Soviet Union concerned with civil aviation. It employs civil aircraft for Ice reconnaissance and exploration of the Arctic region. In addition, it is responsible for air transport throughout the Soviet Arctic. Whilefrom the UGVF, it must operate closely with the Civil Air Fleet, and the UGVF is believed to be responsible for the general direction of its over-all policy as well as inspection of Northern Sea Route aircraft.
Osoaviakhim (Society for thc Promotion of Aviation and Chemistry)This organization is the third organization which is considered torimary interest in civil aviation. The Osoaviakhim has its own aircraft, which are used by aero clubs for private flying, or rather the nearest approach to such activity, in the Soviet Union. The Osoaviakhim can bearamilitary organization for the promotion of flying among Soviet youngsters before they are of military age.
ins question is not believed applicable to the Soviet Union. The Sovietcontrols and operates all civil aviation and extragovemmental opinions on the adequacy of civil aviation or its relation to the public interest would have no material
29
se^et
influence on civil air administration. An objective analysis of Soviet civil aviation,clearly indicates that it is inefficient in many respects. It can only be said to serve the public interest within the Communist concept of this purpose.
rom the standpoint of the known and probable functions of these many agencies concerned with civil air. It appears that considerable overlapping andexist. The resulting conflicts are probably solved by the State Planningthc Academy of Sciences, or the Council of Ministers. If settlement cannot be effected at this level, the problem is probably referred to the Politburo for decision.
C. Procedures And Rugulations.
Routes,
These questions are generally inapplicable to Soviet civil air. The entire civil aviation programovernment monopoly. No competition between carriers for air routes can exist. Thc decision toew air route could possibly ariseumber ot agencies, such as the Stale Planning Commission, Ministry of Armed Forces, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Council ot Ministers, or in the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet itself. Any new air route would probably have to be approved by the State Planning Commission, but the actual implementation of this policywould be the responsibility of the Main Administration of the Civil Air Fleet.
rates on Soviet civil air lines arc fixed by the UOVF, and thus arethe government. At the official exchange rate otents per ruble, rates onapproximately double the US commercial air-line ratesents per mile. If"diplomatic rate" of exchange isubles per dollar) Soviet ratesto US domestic rates.
Both the above exchange rales are purely arbitrary, as the ruble is not used in foreign exchange; therefore, its international value is undetermined. On the basis of prices which Soviet citizens must pay for imported goods sold in Soviet stores, it is estimated the consumer's ruble is worthents Purchasing power of rubles expended by the government is considered to be much greater than thc purchasing power of those spent by individuals, since the government is able to set cost prices on the materials which it buys. In view of thc above, it is impossible to comparerales on Soviet air lutes with US commercial rates, since the comparison would be basedonexistent international exchange rate of the ruble.
are believed to be based primarily on economic considerations;political factors sometimes affect rates During the operation ot the Illicit airIran, (or example, rate-cutling tactics were employed In an attempt to forceIranian Air Lines Into bankruptcy.
d. No specific Information is available on this subject There is not believed to be any such thingiscriminatory rate policy as such. High ranking members of the Communist Party, government, and armed forces, however, are believed to have priority in riding UOVF aircraft. These individuals are not believed to pay money for
iheir passage, although the cost is probably charged to thc government agency which the travelers represent. It is also probable that the USSR occasionally grantsrates to individuals or groups of workers, in order to capitalize on the propaganda value of such paternalism. How thc bookkeeping is handled is of little importance, since the government in any case pays for the operation of civil air lines.
a. Although no specific information is available regarding safety regulations, it is probable that whatever regulations are in effect are issued by the Main Adminis^ tration of the Civil Air Fleet. Responsibility for enforcement probably is delegated to the Inspectorate of the Main Administration of the GVF
ccording to numerous foreigners who have traveled in Soviet aircraft thc regulations are cither inadequate or arc not enforced. Because In the USSR orders of the slate are usually strictly enforced wiih punishment for violations, it is believed that adequate safety regulations have not beenomplete ignorance of scientific loading (such as lashing cargo in the aircraft prior to take-oil) is evident. It is definitely known that Soviet authorities are alarmed at the accident rate of USSR aircraft.
a. The followingummary of the types of inspections laid down In air force regulations. As It is believed that UGVF regulations are similar, this digesta possible indication or Civil Air Fleet diiCctives on the subject.
Preflightaircraft to be inspected before flight by the aircraft mechanic, technician, and crew. Thc flight technician to examine at least two aircraft daUy. chosen at random. The regimental engineer and armament and specialengineer to inspect at least fifteen aircraft monthly, chosen at random.
Interflightcases of repeated operations, to be carried out by the crews and ground technical personnel.
Inspection after(Considered the most important since alland damage occurring during flight need lo beo be carried out by technical crew members and technical ground personnel under the supervision of thc squadron technical officer.
Periodicbe carried out only In units in rear areas, In flying schools and training establishments. In front-line formations only regulation jobs are to be done, the period of which is laid down In instructions for technicalof the different types of aircraft.
inspection of Aircraft and Engines which Have Reached Regulation Limit of their Life or Become Unusable because of Damage-'Tht purpose of this inspection Is to determine whether the aircraft in question, on the basis of its actual condition is still capable of furtherhe degree of repair to be established as well as the necessity for transferaintenance unit. It Is also to be decided whether the aircraft should be rejected. For thc purpose of suchommission with the regimental engineer as chairman, is lo be established by regimental order When
31
the examination has revealed that the aircraft, despite the lapse of regulation number of flying hours, is still not In need of repair, the commission has authority to prolong the regulation overhaul period of an aircraftnd of an engine. This decision, however, must be confinried by the Chief Engineer of the Air Army.
the above listing of inspections is complete, It is apparent thaton this subject would be considered inadequate by US standards.
5. Airports and Communications.
of the Civil Air Fleet appear to use either military or civilarc, however, airfields In thc Soviet Union that support strictly civil activity.
airfields are operated and maintained by the three Soviet civil
D. General Evaluation,
the paucity of detailed information, It seems deer that the civilof the USSR are closely geared to the economic capacities, political alms,requirements of thc country.
It Is reasonable to conclude that Soviet planning for civil aviation is farsighted and well conceived, but that the implementation of this leaves much to be desired. While the future willonsiderable expansion of Soviet civil aviation, thisprobably will fall short of planning estimates.
principal points of strength in Soviet civil aviation can be summed up(a) adequate manufacturing faculties to satisfy aircraft production needsexpanding domestic air network;arge war-trained reserve of pilots andupon which to draw as need arises; (c) training esUbllshrnents for newrefresher courses and technical schools for advanced training adequate tostandards, and (d) finally, perhaps the greatest source of strength, thein the Soviet system of control to allocate skills and direct availabletoward the objectives of Communist national policy.
Serious weaknesses, however, characterize the Soviet civil air establishment These are: (a) lack of experience in commercial operating techniques as practiced by the leading Western air carriers, which results in poorly executed scheduled operations with low safely standards; (b) lack of experience in long-range operations; (c) lack of sufficient modern aids to navigation (such as electronic equipment required for night flying and bad weather operations) for general use; (d) lack of trained operators for such equipment, resulting In reduced operating efficiency; and (e) obsolete equipment still in use over most of the Soviet air network.
There undoubtedly lies, in the vast extent and regional isolation of the Soviethallengeompelling incentive lo Soviet civil aviation. The widely dispersed, yet economically important population centers, togethereficienttransportation system, present an obvious mission for civil aviation, and explain the high priority given to It in the Fourth Fivc-Ycar Plan.
32
QUESTIONNAIRE ON MILITARY AVIATION TO BE USED IS CONJUNCTION WITH THIS STUDY
PROBLEM:
2.
I. To list all governmental agencies and other organizations which participate in the formulation and implementation of policy concerning militaryo analyze, for each agency: a. Exact functions pertaining to military aviation,
fa. Motivating circumstances under which these responsibilities were originally assigned or assumed (this Is not applicable in all cases),
of adequacy with which the responsibilities have been discharged,
of duplication or overlapping of functions with other agencies.
if any. which have arisen out ofnd the success inconflicts,
for lateral coordination with other agencies, with aIts effectiveness.
2.
To analyze Soviet policy with respect to military aviation, as well as thefor establishing androm the following points of view: a. Over-all national considerations:
Strategic doctrine on the Importance of military air in national defense, both (a) absolute and (b) relative to ground and naval arms.
Military air In foreign relations, including:
b.
Its use Ui international armed forces (UN),
Coordination of staff planning with other nations, <c) Its dependence on foreign technical and material resources, (d) The release of military air designs or equipment to foreign
nations.
Armed forces (to be covered very briefly)!
of Independence of air arms from ground and naval forces,
(3)
Extent of Integration of naval and military air policy,
Proportionate distribution of air strength between home command and overseas (between main areas).
Organization of air reserve and role of civil aviation in thc air reserve. I.
Proportion of national income allocated to military air, Proportion of total budget of the armed forces allocated to military air. Proportion of military air appropriations allocated to operational units, training, procurement, research and development, Subsidization (direct and Indirect) of civilian research, educational institutions, and the aviation Industry.
' Military aviation in lhe sense of this study Includes the naval air arm.
SEJprKT
Agencies responsible for preparation and presentation of the military air budget.
and development:
Extent of research and development carried out by the armed forces, and degree of mtcrservice coordination in this activity,
Extent of government-sponsored or supported research andin the field of military aviation,
Extent of purely private research and development ln the field of military aviation,
Extent of centralized control in the establishment of priorities for research and development
and production:
Speed with which operational units are re-equipped with newlytypes of equipment,
Capability of nlrcraft industry to expand for production on wartime basis,
of centralized control ofTraining and specialized education:
Service schools,
Participation by the military in the aeronautical education of civilians.
Use of civilian educational institutions for thc training of military specialists.
g. Security:
(1) Measures employed to protect the security of (a) classified military data which must be revealed to civilian agencies and private Industry, and (b) the results of private research and development. To determine whether thc present governmental structure is able to establish
and implement military air policy with:
a. Efficiency and effectiveness,
o. Rapid adaptability to changed circumstances.
c. Economical use of funds.
24
QUESTIONNAIRE ON CIVIL AVIATION
TO BE USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THIS STUDY
L AlK POLICIES.
What are thc basic policies of the country with regard to civil aviation? Is civil aviation regarded as an instrument of national policy? To what degree does thc state determine policy with respect to it?
To what extent, by what means, and for what reasons does thc government promote (or restrict) the development and expansion of (a) scheduled air(b) nonscheduled air transport, (c) private flying, (d) aircraft manu-factoring, (e) research, (f) aeronautical engineering education, (g) thcof pilots and other technicians. Including grants to foreigners, (h) export and import of aeronautical equipment, <i) airports, (j) air navigation facilities. Indicate policies, and reasons therefor, with regard to:
of air carriers: Is private or government ownership favored,what reasons? Are foreigners permitted to own controlling or
or aircraft manufacturing industry;
among national carriers;
of national air lines against competition with foreign carriers;
of air carriers, manufacturing, airports, education,
evelopment of transport aircraft; g. Use of foreign transport aircraft;
ft. Operations of foreign airlines, bilateral and multilateral agreements,organizations.
Is civil air policy influenced by military air requirements? To what extent do the armed forces control civil aviation? Is civil air transport regardedaseinforcement of the military air potential,ustification for the maintenanceanufacturing industry, orommercial activity of economic and political value? If the answer Iso what extent do (a) and (b) receive consideration?
How arc the country's civil air policies related to or influenced by those of other countries? Is the country closely associated with, or dominated by, any foreign power ln matters of civil aviation?
What are the current government and private expenditures for each of the activities mentioned, and what is the relationship of these expenditures to (a) the national income, (b) the national budget, and (c) the military air
budget?
35,
BE^BT
What vested Interests exert Influence on civil air policy and what is thc nature of such influence? Are any agencies of the government dominated by these interests?
. Does the government sponsor, control, or subsidize aeronautical education?docs it operate or control thc institutions in which thc education isthe number of students determined by the government, or left to theof thc students themselves? To what extent are the studentsor supported by the government? What is the total enrollment inOn what phases of aeronautical education does the governmentemphasis? What is the situation with respect to aeronauticaleducation specifically from the foregoing points ofthc government operate its own aeronautical research andor subsidize private organizations? Howesearchdoes thc government support? How much money Is appropriatedpurposes? Arc such appropriationswhat phases
of aeronautical research is greatest emphasis given? To what extent doinstitutions engage in aeronautical research on their own initiative?s thc development of new types of aircraft and equipment by manufacturers subsidized or financed by the government? If so. what control does thehave over manufacturers, and In what manner is the financial aid granted? To what extent do manufacturers engage in research on their own initiative?
nt Organizations.
list all agencies of the government concerned with civil aviation, including legislative and Judicial, as well as executive and military agencies, and agencies connected with manufacturing, research and scientific development, exports and trade, procurement, education, training, airports and communications, and appropriations, as well as agencies related directly to scheduled and non-scheduled air transport and private flying.
thc functions of each of these agencies as they relate to
when and by what legislative or adminislrative actionscame Into being.
the reasons for the establishment of civil air agencies in theIn which they are now organized, and the circumstances underair functions were assigned to. or assumed by agencies not directlyconcerned with civil aviation. Show the influence ofand economic conditions and of vested interests (private,on the determination of the existing organizationalindicate the reasons for the abandonment or revision ofing organizations.
To what extent are each of these agencies considered to beseful function efficiently and in the public Interest, or the contrary, by (a) aviation
(b) competitive forms of transportation, (c) political parlies, (d) the armed forces, and (e) the general public?
o what extern do Iheie agencies duplicate or overlap each other? How are resulting conflicts resolved? Are their activities coordinatedigher level by any central group?
s any consideration being given at present to abolishing, reorganizing, orexisting agencies, or creating new ones? if so, what are the objectives of such proposed changes?
PKOCmURLS AND REGULATIONS. 1. Air route*.
a. What agency (if any) awards particular air routes to designated carriers? 6. What considerations determine the grantingoutearticular carrier?
conditions arc Imposed on the carrier in the operation of the route?
freedom do carriers have to determine thc routes they will or will
e Are new routes established on the initiative of the government or the carrier?
/. Are all carriers entitled lo apply for any proposed new route?
g. Is competition permitted over identical or similar routes?
ft. Under what circumstances can the carrier's certificate be revoked or
revised? Holes.
rales fixed by the government or the carriers'1
rates based on economic, competitive, political, or social considerations?
rates are fixed by tho government, what procedures and methods areand by what agencies?
discriminatory rales permitted among carriers, or among classesor freight?
Safety.
and by what agencies are rules and regulations concerningand enforced?
such regulations adequate? Are they competently and strictly
safety regulations enforced impartially, or are they usedeansfavoritism to certain carriers?
Inspection.
a. What regulations and procedures govern lhe inspection of equipment,and accidents?
re these regulations adequate? By whom, and to what degree are they enforced?
penalties are Imposed for failure to obey regulations?
3?
SEfRET
Airports and Communications.
regulations govern the use of airports?
organizations operate airports?
procedures are followed with regard to communications?
organizations operate the communications systems?
. Reports and Forms,
For the purpose of administering civil air policies, enforcing regulations,financial aid, and assuring adequacy, safety, and efficiency of operations, what types of periodic or special reports, examinations, or forms does therequire concerning: a. Traffic;
6. Expenses, revenues, and rales;
C. Educational standards and accomplishments;
activities and technical development;
and mental condition of pilots and other Technical qualifications of pilots and other employees;
g. Aircraft flight operations (including required meteorologicalt. Aircraft inspections; i. Accidents; i. Others.
To what agencies are the reports submitted? How are they processed and what uses arc made of them?
Sknsral Evaluation.
I. Are lhe government's civil air organizations, policies, rules, and procedures generally considered to be sound, progressive, equitable, honestly administered, and well adapted to the capacities, alms, and requirements of thc country'sindustry, and security? If there are marked differences of opinion in this regard, what is the nature of, and lhe reasons for disagreement?
i. What are the principal points of strength and weakness in civil aviation? To what extent are they due to conditions over which the country has no control, or to conditions for which the government and/or industry are responsible?
33
DISTRIBUTION
Tbe PreHdent Secretary of BUtU
Chlat Of Staff to Commander in Chief Secretary of Defenseae Army Secretary of the Navy Secretary of the Air Force
RucutlVQ Secretary. National Security
Chairman, National Security Raaourcaa Board Chief of Starr. US Army Chief of Naval OperaQoos Chief of BUB. CB Air rare*
Director of Plana and Operatlona, Oeoeral Staff.rmy Deputy Chief of Naval Operatlonairector of Plana sad Operatlona. U8 Air Faroe
Special Antsttnt to tha Secretary of Stata. Reararch aad lnuiUgene*
Director of Intelligence. OenerrJ Staff,rmy
Chief of Naval Inwouenoe
Director of Intenicenee. OB Air Force
Becretary, Joint Chlefa of Staff
Secretary. Joint Intelligence Oroap
Secretary. State-Army-Navy-Air Force Coordinating Committee
ExccnUrc Sccreiary, Military Liaison Commit ten lo tho Atomic Energy Commission
Director of Security and Intelligence, Atomic Energy Commission
Chief, Acquisition and Distribution, OICD, Department of State
Original document.
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