NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE ESTIMATE
CIVIL DEFENSE IN THE USSR
CIA HISTORICAL REVIEW PROGRAM RELEASE IN FULL
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
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NATIONAL INTELLIGENCE ESTIMATE
CIVIL DEFENSE- IN THE USSR
NIE-60
*3Lis doctrranr. has Lecn approved for roloofc chixucjh Uu. HISTORICAL MVZS. mGMMthe Central Intelligence Ao^rcy.
Date
HRP
The Intelligence organizations of the DcparUnenls otArmy, the Navy, Uie Air Force, and the Joint Staffwith the Central Intelligence Agency In theof this estimate.embers rw'thcCommittee concurred in this estimate on 14
CONTENTS
Page
the problem
Summary
Background
The Present Civil De*tnse Program
Civil Defense
Defense Against Special Weapons
Other Civil Defense Activities and Resources
Soviet Civil Defense Capabilities
APPENDIX A: CIVIL DEFENSE ORGANIZATION
AND
The MPVO .
MPVO Organizationity or
Smaller Units ok Tilt
APPENDIX B: CIVIL DEFENSE
MPVO Staff and Unit
Civu. Defense Training Standards
DOSAAF Traininc
DOSAAF Radio Clubs
Red Cross and Red Crescent
APPENDIX C: PREPARATION AGAINST SPECIAL
WEAPONS
Defense acainst Atomic
Defense against Chemical
Defense against Biological Attack
APPENDIX D: OTHER CIVIL DEFENSE ACTIVITIES
AND
Police and
Medical Resources .
Transport
Stockpiling
Protective Construction
CIVIL DEFENSE IN THE USSR
THE PROBLEM
describe the Soviet civil defense program and to estimate its capabilities.'
ESTIMATE
The USSRarge,and well organized civil defense system, which is Integrated into the over-all Soviet Anti-Air Defense systemhis system Is based on the extensive civil defensewhich the USSR maintained during World War II. It is probable that civil de-tense organizations and auxiliaries designed to meet wartime emergencies exist in most cities andith the most intensive preparations In large cities and al moreindustrial installations. Thc civilsystem is gradually being brought to an increased state of readiness and appears capable of rapid expansion in event ofHowever, there is no evidence of any preparations for early hostilities.
Background. Civil defense training in the USSR goes back as farhen the first mass military auxiliary (OSOAVJAKHIM) was organized, with mass civil defenseas one of Its most important functions. The totalitarian structure and elaboratemechanisms of lhe USSR have greatly facilitated thc Soviet civil defense task.World War II the Soviet civil defensein which nearly all civilians
The lermdefense" as used In this study Includes only those passive defense activitieslo: lai minimize lhe Immediate effectsivilian population lhat would be causedudden allacN; (b) deal with the immediate emergency conditions created by any such altack; and tel effect emergency repairs lo. or therestoration of. vital uUliUcs andouo" Is an administrative subdivision ol an obtait. whichubdivisionnion Republic.
were compelled to participate,arge and diverse role. Besides their activities in areas under air attack, civil defense unitstheir own ground defenses andlines for the Red Army, and theyin the reconstruction of bombed and devastated areas. The wartime civil defense organization and program has never beenand the structure of the present civil defense system appears unchanged insince World War II.owever,ime aflcr the war thepopulation was evidently apatheticcivil defense activities, and thesedeclined. The Soviet government has attempted to overcome this apathy by means of propaganda rather than by the compulsion resorted to during the war. Although allofoears of age are subject under existing decree to participation in the civil defense program, the government to date has chosen to keep the program onoluntary" In lhe Soviet sense doubtless including Indirect8 internal propaganda, disseminated through Communist party organs, tradethe Young Communist League, andauxiliaries, as well as by the press and radio, has been increasingly stressing the need for civil defense training of the entire
4 The Present Civil Defense System. (Seche existing Soviet civil defense program stresses planning and training for thc rapid and effective mobilization of all available resources to deal with wartime emer-
gencies in target areas. While thc civilprogram receives supervision, support, and financial assistance from the centralit appears to be basedorkable balance between this centralised control and maximum local initiative in the utilization of civilian resources andThe entire program is based upon Integration Into thc civil defense system of agencies, groups, and enterprises whosefunctions are other than civil defense but which would assume civil defenseloles in event of war.
he core of the Soviet civil defenseand the mechanism through which Its various elements are centrally coordinated and supervised, is the MPVO (Local Anti-Air Defense) system, which ls under the Ministry of Internal Affairsection of the MVD Ministry In Moscow, the Mainof Local Anti-Air Defense (GUM-PVO). is responsible for central of MPVO activities throughout the USSR Under It is an MPVO corps, composed of MVD personnel professionally qualified in civil defense duties. The MPVOommand and staff organization which undertakes civil defense planning and supervises and coordinates the training and activities of the various existing agencies and groups which have civil defense roles. The latter provide,art-time basis, the vast bulk of the local MPVO personnel. MPVOgenerally are organised in staffs or units composed of MVD and local civilianat administrative levels descending from all-union, to union-republic, oblast, city or rayon, down to individual plants,and even dwellings. (See chart on
6 The basic civil defense unit is the city or rayon MPVO, which may plan for andsuch services as camouflage, (ireflghling. medical-sanitation, veterinary, damageanti-chemical defense,and reporting, security and public order, transportation, shelter, and evacuation. These services arc generally performed by suchagencies as the local police and fire-fighting forces, local health and sanitation
facilities. Red Cross and Red Crescentand others. The larger city orunits have under-them sectorsimilar organization.'while theunit is the "self-defense group,"formed within apartments, smallschools,n the basis ofoneersons. There8ocal civilunits of all types. These unitswhich can be expanded ornew sub-units can be formed In eventemergency, in accordance withpredetermined
emphasis is apparently placedlocal MPVO organizations atfactories and other targets suchThese units have crews whichservices similar to the services of theMost Industrial or economichave special sections which, amongare apparently responsible forit that plants under their Jurisdictionthe necessary civil defense preparations.
the MPVO organization isMVD, the military Anti-Air Defense(PVO) also has an over-allInvolving civil as well as militaryin wartime situations. Thea separate top levelthe War Ministry, Is ultimatelythe entire Soviet air defense system, andprobably monitors passive airlo insure coordination of over-allplans.ocal area or city isattack, the MPVO organizationthe operational control of theIn that area. If such an officerdesignated.
ivU Defense Training. (Seehc Soviet civil defense progtam encompasses both specialized training ol MPVO personnel and mass training of large population groups through various mass organizations. With thc aid of such other agencies as thc Ministry of Health and thc armed forces, the MPVO organization sets up standards for theof the civilian population. Actualprograms are conducted by the MPVO service itself and by the existing local agencies
whose civil defense activities the MPVO
In addition, mass training of thein basic civil defense measures Isas part of their broader functions by the Voluntary Society for Assistance to the Army, Aviation, and Navyhich is the chief Soviet military auxiliary society, and by the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, sports societies, and other similar groups. The civil defense program Is widely advertised through the Soviet propaganda machinery and given unity and purpose through theand discipline of the Communist Party and its youth organizations.
The scope of mass civil defense training is indicated by evidence that aneople participate in thc activities of DOSAAF, and0 in thc Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,ave been trained in the MPVO system itself. These figuresinclude considerable overlapping since many persons probably belong to more than one group. Personnel who are not officially part of the above groups, but who have had some appropriate military or medical training, must also be considered as part of the civil defense potential. These include many people trained during World War II. The Soviet civil defense potential is much greater in terms both of trained personnel and of mass popular education than it was at the beginning of World War II. Moreover, as the presentprograms steadily add to the reserve of trained personnel, this potential will gradually increase.
The MPVO Main Administration (GUM-PVO) has emphasized the necessity ofMPVOtate of readiness, stressing the use of up-to-date techniques. Civilconferences called by GUMPVO havewartime experiences and theirto civil defense activities. These matters have also been treated extensively inpublications. Moreover,esult ot wartime experience, the MPVO system hasadopted new equipment andOnemobile command post"with radiowitchboard
which can be connected with the localsystem, and amplifiers from whichcan be directed at. the scene of the disaster. Another MPVO development isfor technical emergency vehicles,simple equipment for rescue andwork, and serving as moveable blacked-out workshops. Portable lighting systemshave also been developed specifically for civil defense purposes. However, theto which such equipment is available in quantity is not known.
Defense against Special Weapons Attacks. (Seelthough it is not clear from available evidence that the USSR isspecific preparations for civil defense against atomic weapons, the USSR Ispreparing against such attacks ln Its broader civil defense measures. In any event, known Soviet internal propaganda hasminimized the effects of atomicand there is apparently little popular anxiety over the consequences of atomic bombing. One motive for such minimizing might be to reduce the element of panicpreceding or during atomic attacks on the USSR.
The USSR has long placed great emphasis on defense against chemical attack ln its civil defense program. These measures,the medical and decontaminationare also adaptable to some aspects ofagainst atomic attack and such adaptation may be planned. Existing Soviet facilities for combatting human, plant, and animal diseases also give the USSR acapabilily for civil defense againstwarfare attack. However, there are nothat specific anti-BW training is underway. Soviet chemical warfare defense facilities would to some degree be adaptable to supporting BW defense.
Other Civil Defense Activities and(Seeoviet civilplans provide for the integrated use of resources such as the police, firefighting,health, communications, transportation, construction, and other agencies under MPVO supervision in event of emergency. The highly developed MGB police services would have ex-
i
TOP
capabilities lor maintaining order in event of emergency, while the fireflghtingwhich Is under the MVD, is trainedajor civil defense role. The extensiveand sanitary facilities of the Ministry of Health are already tied Into the MPVO system.
lthough no elements of thc extensivestockpiling program have beenbeing set aside specifically for civilitems which would be useful forare known to be kept In reservealso unconfirmed reportslan fordecentralization ofegional basis.
IT While present shelter facilities in the USSR consist primarily of those remaining from World War II, there is evidence offor shelter facilities in new building In important Urget areas. Dwellingspecifications in some areas Includefor shelters, and some Installations, such as subways and other tunnels, havebeen constructed with auxiliaryneeds In mind. Construction agenciesretain "defense specialists" (probably MPVO officers) to monitor construction plans from tbe point of view of defense needs.not only possible shelter facilities but also proper siting and dispersal of facilities, and possible alternative emergency uses, for example, the use ot schools as emergencyor hospitals.
e cannot estimate the extent tohese resources would enable the USSR toith wartime emergencies, especially atomic 'attacks.
oviet Civil Defense Capabilities. In the light of thc above evidence as to the nature and extent of the Soviet civil defense program, we believe that the USSR must already beubstantial civil defense capability, probably greater than that of any other major country except perhaps the UK. Its present civil defense system appears well-planned and organized, although It may be deficient In
specific preparations against atomic attack. Itull-time civil defense staffcomprehensive plans, for theof other existing agencies andnd an extensive training program Incivil defense needs are apparently being taken Into consideration in new construction and urban and regional planning, and perhaps in stockpiling and decentralization programs.
The Soviet civil defense program Is made less difficult by the existing dispersal ofand Industry. Moreover, the elaborate Soviet control mechanisms and the highlycharacter of thc population also make control and evacuation in case of air attacks easier. On the other hand, the Soviet civil defense problem is, in some respects, greater than lhat of most other major countries. The large proportion of wood construction in thc USSRerious fire hazard, while,ivil defense emergency, there woulderious shortage of transport facilities and of materials.
Although the civil defense syslem appears capable of rapid expansion in event ofthere Is no evidence of preparations which would Indicate an expectation of early hostilities. In the limited areas open to them. Western observers have seen slight evidence of thc building of special air raid shelters, air raid drills, posters giving civil defenselo the populace or other Indications of preparation against air attacks. Thenature of the civil defense program also Indicates that It is stillreoperational stage, and has not been given so high aas to call for compulsory measures.
We believe that the USSR is placingemphasis on civil defense activities, along with its other efforts to improve theof the USSR against enemy air attacks. Thc expanding civil defense program, together with the USSR's increasingly effective aircontributesrowing Sovietlor defense against hostile air attack.
-
APPENDIX "A"
DEFENSE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS
There is abundant evidence that the USSRarge and elaborate civil defense system, which is based on the extensive civil defense structure in use during World Warhe primary operational roles ln thisare assigned to existing agencies, groups, and enterprises at local, regional, and national levels, whose primary functions arc other than civil defense. Aside from the existingresources of these agencies and groups, however, we do not have any adequateas to the extent to which they have been allocated special civil defense equipment and resources, which would probably beto cope wllh wartime emergencies,from atomic attack.
The core of the Soviet civil defenseand the mechanism through which the civil defense activities of the various agencies and groups are centrally controlled andis the MPVO (Local Anti-Air Defense) system, which is under the Ministry ofAffairsection of the MVD headquarters ln Moscow, the Mainof Local Anti-Air Defense (OUMPVO) is responsible for central supervision of MPVO activities throughout the USSR OUMPVO was probably organized90 to Uke over from the Red Army the coordination and supervision of local civil air defense. Under it is an MPVO career corps composed of full-time MPVO personnel specially trained in civil defense duties.ull-time civil defense corps has evidently existed for at least ten years. The MPVO corps functionsommand and staff organization wluchcivil defense planning, and supervises and coordinates at all levels the activities and training of thc various other existing agencies
* The data on Ihis subject is derived largely from Russian and Ociman World War II documents, which have been extensively confirmed bj more recent information from repatriated German POWj. Soviet defectors. Soviet professional journals,manuals, press releases, and open Sovietauch as Soviet encyclopedias.
such as local police and firefighting services, local health and sanitation facilities, Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, etc which provide,art-time basis, the vast bulk of local MPVO personnel.
3 MPVO activities generally are organized In staffs and units composed of MVD and/or local civilian authorities at administrative levels descending from all-union tooblast, city or rayon, and down toplants, institutions, and even dwelling units. (Sec chart onhrough these MPVO units, voluntary or auxiliary groups of the civilian population can be brought togetheroordinated effort with existing local police and flrefighting units, ambulance and rescue units, medical facilities, and thc Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Moreover, the peacetime MPVO unitsrepresent nuclei which can. be expanded or around which new units can be formed in event of war, in accordance with existingplans
PVO Organizationity or Rayon. Thc basic MPVO unit Is the city or rayonocal governmental and partyeconomic enterprises, publicand individualsity or rayon are brought together for the purposes of civil defense under the local chief of MPVO. usually an MVD officer, and his staff. (See chart onhe chief and his staff formulate and carry out the plan of action Tor his city or rayon, finance and direct acquisition ofnnd technical operations, provide for training of staff and public, and supervise thc operation of civil defense forces and facilities of the city or rayon in event of war disasters. For execution of this course of action, the city or rayon MPVO calls upon its supportingwhich may vary according to localand thc living requirements of acity or region Various MPVOmay be createdariety oforganizational structures:
It la not clear when city-wide MPVOwere first formed, but they were mentioned in Soviet documenU as early as IMS
SOVIET ORGANIZATION FOR AIR DEFENCE WITHIN THE USSR
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
DfECNSe'
MINtSTR-tS
TRANVOtTATlON
WITH WfCSTANT CM DEFENSE ROUS
WAS
AS
DEFENSE
O* MTUNAL AFFAIRS WVW
ADMIN J'"
OCAl.
CE'fNSE
Or.
MVD ADMIN JtRAT:ON cr UNQN REPJ&XS
A* M'ENSE
dum^voi
MINISTRY Cf WAI
ANCC
Of Aft DEFENSE
F AIR DEFENSE REO0NS
NAVAl WIN'S THY
ADAMNfStRAlCN CFAVAL FORCES
OF MAY OR CSt AST
.OCA I Air
DMNB DEFaRTmENI
fOMPVOI
COMMASOEBS Of AIR DEFENSEJJTaAY
COMMANDERS Of
NAVAl AIR DEFENSE DISTRICTS, ftKTS
ano nouws
R A'.Vf. TECHN CA. ANO OrtRATIONAl CONHCX
COOTJC^AtlON ANOONTRCX
Atf DEFENSE IN FACTORIES ANO SK>>S
lOCAL AS DEFENSEOTTES AND R'GSGC*COA
C* RA'ONAI
COMMANDERS
S FONTS
COMMANDER OF TH* FVO HAjOVtJtAU COC*DNATOn AND
sufwvisorvo* a*
DEFENSE. INCIUONO Cm. DEFENSE
A* DEFENSE
VO]
f<JMTJ*
RCH AT
1
ND REPORTING SCRVCT UN1S
Shelter Service organizes andthe registering ot cellars or otherpossible use as air raid shelters. Itand constructs shelters. Includingand trenches, and is responsible lorprotection for the population.
Camouflage Service providesprecautions, for camouflageor vegetation, and for smokeThe latter may be used only withof the PVO (Air Defensesince It may affect militaryCamouflage measures are thcof all civilians, with specialIn each home, enterprise, school,
Evacuation Service is responsiblea plan for evacuation of peoplegoods and insuring orderlythis plan should it become necessary.register all living space which mightfor quartering evacuees.
Transportation Service isprovide the city or rayon withfacilities. This includestransportation personnel informedroutes, adapting equipment fororganizing and training crews ofcivil defense operations, andemploying all forms of transportation.
Service for the Preservation ofSecurity is built around the regularforce (MGB militia) augmentedof auxiliary organizations, includingfor Assistance to the Police, whichby the police. It has thcmissions: fighting panic and Uieof false rumors during enemy airconformance of local populationlaws and civil defense rules.areas, and directing traffic.developed Soviet securitybe of great value in coping withcase ol heavy air attacks.
he Communication and Reportingof the MPVOity or rayon is designed to insure communication facilities required by thc commands and staffs of MPVO fororders during an atiack and duringof damage. It Is also responsible for
warning the city or rayon of impending airIn this function it cooperates with the warning system of the PVQ syslem Facilities and personnel employed include local radioand the local telephone network, the chief of which may be designated as Uie chief of Uie Communications and ReportingTo fulfill its purpose Uie Service must provide for Uie restoration and repair of com-municaUons In case of damage and for the training of civilian groups for employment as emergency communication crews.
Anti-Fire Service. The MPVOservice employs the existing localunit of the MVD and is headed byof that unit. Its duties includepopulace to fight large fires and toincendiary bombs, developing asystem and familiarizingity with it, providing formeasures, and coordinating theof fireflghting equipment TheService organises, trains, andgroups (Volunteer Firefightlngto augment Uie regular units ofand trains "self-defense groups"houses, schools, and other
Defense Service isdesigned for decontamination. Itdirects decontamination crews andlocal populace in chemical warfareIt Is also responsible for providingdecontamination materials
Disaster Restoration Service hasprimary funcUon to rendertechnical assistance to insure Uiefunctioning of Uie city's orand enterprises during and afterIt trains restoration brigades frompopulace, in all specialties,immediate removal of debris socrews may have access lo
i- The Mcdieal-Saiiitation Service (MSS MPVO) is staffed primarily by local agencies of the Ministry of Health. It is headed by the director of the city or rayon health depart-
menl or. in rural areas, by lhe chief of the rural medical district. In fact, the Ministry of Health in Moscowectionlo MPVO affairs. Thc Bed Cross and Red Crescent Societies are also assigned roles in the Medical Sanitation Service. The basic purpose of this Service is to render prompt first aid to the victims of an enemy attack. To this end the MSS has emergency authority to administer all civil medical Institutions within the area and to adapt them to the needs of MPVO. and lo organize stationary and mobile facilities. Provision is made for utilization of first aid points, decontamination points, school buildings, club houses, theaters, and air raid shelters. The MSS may, itrequisition other resources, such as transportation facilities and, with permission of thc commanding officer, utilize thefacilities of local miliiary garrisons.
k. The Veterinary Service is organized to render veterinary help for stricken animals, to evacuate them to safe zones, and to ensure procurement of food. On account of their medical training, veterinarians may alsofirst aid to humans.
ther Services than those mentioned may be organized in large cities, for example, for thc restoration of roads and bridges, water supply and sewage disposal, electric and gas utilities, trade, food supply, etc.
maller Units of MPVO. Subordinate lo the city or rayon MPVO are sectorsnd the MPVO's of specialtargets. Sector units are divisions of the clly or rayon MPVO which can operate semi-indcpendently lo meet emergencies within their own area. Below the secior is theMPVO unit, the "self-defensehich is formed within each dwelling unil.or institution whichr more people. Where dwellings or enterprises comprise lesseople, they are grouped together to form the "self defensehese groups have their own MPVO chiefs who arc subordinate lo the MPVOchief, and have six sub-units, similar to thc city MPVO services, for observation anddecontamination, fire protection, preservation of order, disaster restoration, and
medical aid. The organization of these smaller units is arranged so lhat dutiesto their members .do not conflict with duties which these members may have with respect to one of the services of thc city or rayon MPVO.
actories and other establishments of great economic or defense importance which are likely targets have special MPVOThe MPVO chief at these targets is the director of the enterprise or establishment. Most industrial or economic ministrieshave their own War Mobilizationwhich, among other things, supervise MPVO preparations In the variousand factories under their control. however, the factory MPVO chief is subordinate to the chief of Uie city or rayon MPVO. The primary missionarget MPVO Is to Insure the uninterrupted and proper continuation of the activity underThis Includes thc protection of the labor force, machines, finished products, and raw materials. Crews of the MPVO servicesabove are organized within the target MPVO unit. Including staff, decontamination, disaster restoration, fire protection, medical, veterinary aid (when animals arend order and securily. MPVO medicalare organized from the workers at factories and other enterprises. Several reports Indicate that factory workers have been receiving training in air raid defense.
he Soviet rail network has its own well-organized air raid defense program which ties Into the MPVO system. The Railwayof thc Ministry of Transportationan Air Defense Service with air defense inspectors in the operating departments.Is made for camouflage and dispersal at stations and other important installations, protection of rolling slock from air attack, and dealing with air raid damage. There Is evidenceailway air defense plan is ready lo go into effect upon receipt of coded notification of war. The numerous well-trained and organized railway repair brigades already used In the USSR would be of major civil delense value.
ORGANIZATION OF THE MPVOITY QR REGION
QTY OR REGION MPVO
IMfVO GOtOOARATONA) STAFf [SHIAB]
CAMOUHaGI
were* mpvo
O UCMASTCX1
smtabj
TA*GetOtKTAJ JTAf* QMIAJ]
A* KAO
OTHERS
vmtNAir
AND
ot;
WAtH SLVflT ANOOtVAOJAl
cieatc ano oa! Mam
'BAM
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BiOMANOrj DKONTamnaTOn
nut MOTicnoN
MEOICAl DISASTIb-
WtScBVAnON Of
OtOM AM)
MOM* SMAUETC
MTVO (DOMOV) STAff (SHTA6I
SOr-OEKNH
OKwn drjppA samo
ZASHCMTY)
1MBNO COAUAUNCATOsl DKOrrtAMNAhON WE WOTKTCN
RESTOlATiON MfC<Al
SMSTIATION
WCONTAMINATON DtSASTfR-
PROKCTION VETFBINASr AO
O SKUbrr
SHOT MPVO IMTVO TSCKHA)
StCTONi fOTDfUNQ pCCDNTAMB^TkONlPtOTICTlCN MEOCU
ntSHVATONSOEt ANO
APPENDIX "B
DEFENSE TRAINING
There Is abundant evidence from Sovietsources that the Soviet Union recognizes that the effectiveness of civil defensein large measure depends uponount of training carried on beforehand. Tlie civil defense training program is large and complex. Including both intensive specialized training of the MPVO staffs and units, and mass training through various other agencies, inasmuch as civil defense is part of the total air defense system which Is the responsibility of the military Anti-Air Defense systemVO officials monitor civil defense training lo sec that It corresponds to over-all defense plans. Certain categories of MPVO iraining supervisors are designated by area PVO
Besides thc training of members ol civilunils and services within the MPVOmass training in Lhe fundamentals of civil defense is carried on by such agencies as the Voluntary Society for Assistance to the Army, Aviation, and Navy (DOSAAF) and the Voluntary Societies of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent as part of their broaderA system of standards has beenfor thc standardization of mass training. In addition, education is provided through propaganda channels, press, radio, and
The rapidity with which civil defense groups can be organized under pressure and with systematic propaganda is illustrated by the experience In Moscow early in World War II-1 theregroups0 participants, while onuly thereroupsarticipants. During the course ol the war, all people in some measure took part in MPVO activities. Tolal participation was achieved through compulsion, as provided by1 by thc Council of Ministers of the USSR. The decree required theof all men between the ages ofndnd women between the ages ofxcept Invalids, mothers of young
children, and pregnant women. Training of laborers and office workers was to take place at their respective places of work,of students at their schools, and training of other civilians at their places of residence.
Although the decree under which wartime civil defense mobilization was accomplished is still in effect, It apparently has not been used during the postwar period. Civil defensedeclined considerably after the war. The Soviet government is apparentlyto overcome postwar apathy byand Indirect pressure rather than by the methods of compulsion used during the war.
MPVO Staff and Unit Training. The Soviet civil defense training program puts special stress on the training of MPVO command staffs, on the premise that the successful training ol MPVO personnel and theand agencies they supervise dependsarge extent upon the preparation of the staff echelon. Consequently, the training of MPVO officer personnel occupies an important place in the preparation of cadres for thelocal defense system. According to Za Oooronu (Forpecial attention is given to the chiefs of city and rayon MPVO units by means of courses supervised from the republic level of MPVO organization. In this training the experience of specialists who have worked under combat conditions is utilized. Upon completion of training, the chief MPVO officers should be able not only to lead their MPVO organizations but also to organize them and to direct the training of the units under their control.
In addition to their regular study programs the MPVO officers are required to improve their general education and to becomewith thc economic, geographic, andpeculiarities of their region, including
* Zaeekly publication,discontinuedf the Central Council of the Union o! OSOAVTAKhlM ot Uie USSR and the Main AdminUtraUon of Local AnU-Alr Defense of the MVD. which was largely devoted to civil defense.
-
plans (or its development under thc five-year plans. This broad knowledge prepares them to integrate civil defense preparations with the development of municipalransportation, and industrial planning.
or rayon-wide MPVOhief supervisor, who Lsresponsible for all MPVO educationarea. Under him are seniorand intermediary personnel.intermediaries instruct thewho are then detailed to staffs,and institutions, to carry ona lower echelon.
Staff and field exercises are an Integral part of MPVO training. These exercises, which simulate actual conditions first with maps and then on actual terrain, help lo perfect thc MPVO officer's skill in handling theand facilities of the local civil defense organization. Critiques of these exercises are employed to note the accomplishments and shortcomings of the training and to Indicate remedial measures.
There were reportedly8ocal civil defense sections under theof the Main Administration of Local Anti-Air Defenseince Soviet literature has set the peacetime sizeraining group variouslyhe size of thc civil defense organization In training: at that time, if it were at full strength (which it probably wasould have rangedeople reportedlyclvU defense trainingf the program has continued on this scale, al least as many0 people may now have received or be receiving civil defense training under MPVO auspices since the war. Many ot these people probably also receive training from other groups discussed below.
Civil Defense Training Standards. Civil defense training to prepare persons forin MPVO activities is builtet of training norms called Anti-Alr-and-Chemical DefenseVKhOcan be met through organized study groups, such as those of DOSAAF. or through self-study. Examinations can be con-
ducted by DOSAAF personnel or by personnel of other agencies coordinated through MPVO. depending upon the typc.of activity and by whom the candidates have been trained.meeting the PVKhO requirements receive certificates and are eligible for Inclusion in MPVO crews or for further specializedfor more skilled MPVO work.
PVKhO examinations require general knowledge of civil defense problems. Including types of attacks likely to occur. Identification of gases, recognition of civil defense alarms, signals, and symbols, and Uie general roles of MPVO services. In anti-chemical defense Uie candidate must understand the mechanism and use of gas masks, thc structure ofshelters, how to react In contarninated areas, and Uie elements of decontamination. In medical-sanitary defense he must be able to recognize symptoms and provide first aid,artificial respiration, hemorrhage control, and transfer of injured. He must also show knowledge of fire-control measures,bombs, and use of fire extinguishers.
There IsSO (Ready for Medical-Sanitary Defense) training standard which serves as Uie basis for the training of laypersonnel functioning as part of or along with the Red Cross or Uie MPVO medicalA junior version of this standard. Uie BGSO. is employed for KomsomolsUnion ofioneers, and other youth organtzaUons. During World War II0 people fulfilled GSO standards.
DOSAAF Training. The Society forto Uie Army, Aviation, and Navy
(DOSAAF)ass organization whosepurposes are to acquaint the population with the various fields of modem warfare, to provide civilians with pre-military lnstruc-Uons. and to strengthen thc defenses of Uie country by extensive organizations of public opinion behind the defense program.DOSAAF has grown out of the former Union of Societies for Assistance to theand to Aviation and-Chemlcalof Uie USSR (OSOAVTAKhlM) which, according to Soviet statistics, provided during the last war for the instruction0
persons In passive anti-air defense. Mass civil defense training in the USSR probably goes back asnen OSOAVlAKhIM was Aist organised. OSOAVlAKhIM wasafter the war into three new societies: Tlie Voluntary Societies for Assistance to the Army. Navy, and Aviation (DOSARM, DOS-FLOT. and DOSAV,ince thc last reorganization, large increases Inhave been announced. DOSAAFImportant support from the Communist Party, especially the Communist Union of Youthhe sports societies, and the trade unions, whose members are oltcn obliged to participate in DOSAAF activities.
Is estimated thatarticipate in the activities ofDOSAAF is concernedpre-milltary training and othersupplement the armed forces, it lswith training for andcivil defense preparations to preparefor action during air raids.*
DOSAAF organizationsba factories, institutions, collectivefarms, machine tractor stations,The primary groups affiliatewith the city or rayon, oblast. andsocieties. Membership is open tobetween the ages of aboutndprovision. Including equipment,ln city or rayon groups Is thcof the city or rayon SovietGroups in enterprises andsupported by the ministry orof which theyart.
Radioivil defensealso apparently assigned to theclubs which are subsidiary toof Iheir activities have beenconjunction with that part of thcwhich was formerly DOS ARM. Theol the radio clubs havesince the war and are currcnUyThis expansion probably reflects,in part, Soviet recognition of thc contri-
l-weekJy newspaper publishedDOSAAF, which may have replaced Za Oboronu. contains detailsOSAAF cMI defense training.
butionarge body ot persons familiar with radio techniques can make to naUonal defense, including civil defense. In an area under attack, especially in Uie case of Uieof Uie telephone system, portable radio communication would be almostWidely scattered amateur radio operators could also form an important link in thewarning system and, in lime ofmight be employed to relieve thcnormal communication networks.
Red Cross and Red Crescent Societiesajor civil defense role Is also played by the Volunteer Societies of the Red Cross, or the Red Crescent In Moslem areas, whose medical, sanitary, and first aid activities affect large masses of the popula-Uon. Their functions include notell-developed system of training but also forming and managing groups which performtasks connected with public health and with sanitary and first aid aspects of military and civil defense operation.
The Societies of thc Red Cross and the Red Crescent had an estimated membership of08 (comparable to their highest enrollment in World Wars in the case of DOSAAF. primary0re found throughout the country ln such locations as factories. collecUve farms, and schools. The primary units arc controlled by committees on the rayon level which ln turn are under the jurisdiction of city or oblast committees. Central control of thc SOKKIKP
Is assured by its further organization up Uirough Union-Republic and All-Union
wide dispersion of Uie primarythe SOKKIKP enhances theirmany functions concerned withand civil defense. The Societies'units assist the civil and militaryin such programs asdiseases, better sanitation andand the collection of bloodUie primary units comprise first aidand teams trained. Inand in Uie care and cvacuaUoninjured in Ume of disaster. Asgroups, Uie primary unitson-
iiI P. li T
and important part of the Medical-Sanitary Service o( thc MPVO system.
o maintain Its own operating units and to increase Interest in and knowledge ofand sanitary measures among thethe SOKKIKParge andmass education program. PersonsGSO (Ready for Medical-Sanitarystandards become qualified to serve In various types of units under the SOKKIKP
and In the civil defense system of thc Ml'VO. Thc MPVO must then further train suchand the units to which they belong to function evidently within the civil defense system. While medical and sanitationIs also conducted by the Ministries of Health and by DOSAAF, the Societies of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent are the most important source of mass medical andassistance in time of emergency.
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APPENDIX "C
AGAINST SPECIAL WEAPONS ATTACKS
Defense against Atomic Attack. It is not clear irom available evidence that the USSR is making any specific preparations tor civil defense against atomic weapons. There is no visible attempt to improve shelter areas and other facilities specifically for atomic defense purposes. On the other hand, there have been unconfirmed reports of construction andof underground installations, andof thc capacity of tunnels toexplosion. Moreover, there are various indications that preparations are underway which contribute indirectly to Sovietfor meeting such attacks. Most of the emergencies contemplated In Soviet civilplanning are those resulting from air raids, and the preparations being made would be of use in both atomic and conventionalIt is probable that the USSR isfor atomic defense in its broader civil defense measures. For example, preparations for civil defense against chemical warfare arc to some degree adaptable to atomic attack, particularly the medical and decontamination facilities. All Soviet internal propagandareiterates statements minimizing the effects of atomic attack and there islittle popular anxiety over theof atomic bombing. One motive for such minimizing might be to reduce theof panic immediately preceding oratomic attacks.
Defense against Chemical Attack. It is known that7 through the immediate post-World War JJ period, OSOAVIAKhIM widely disseminated Information regardingagainst chemical attack. The training program for defense against chemical and air attack thoroughly covered the variousof civil defense against chemicalDespite the subsequent reorganisations of OSOAVIAKhIM and its successors, thc same program has probably been retained. Atillion Soviet citizens, including medical and other specialized personnel, prin-
cipally in urban areas, have been trained at some time since World War II in chemical warfare defense. This group,inimum of retraining, would provide an effectivefor the extension of civilian chemical warfare defense training in the USSR.
Soviet military chemical defense equipment is believed to be adequate; it Is conventional in quality and design. It is not known, however, to what extent Soviet civil organizations have been supplied with this equipment, either for training or for use in case of attack.
Defense against Biological Attack. The well-developed Soviet research andactivities and experience in control of natural diseases of man, livestock, or crops create an existing capability for defense against biological warfare (BW) atlack of many kinds, since diseases resulting from BW are likely to differ only In degree, not In type, from those of natural origin. This capability is increased by the availability of professional and nonprofessional personnel and by the apparent linkingeported Anti-Epidemic Service in the Ministry of Health with local civil defense plans. Although there is noevidence that Soviet efforts to improve their control over human, plant, and animal diseases have been affected either in intensity or direction by fear of BW, it seems likely that their fight against diseases of whatever origin must have been stimulated and accelerated by their notorious fear of sabotage.
Although the USSR has made propaganda claims that the Western Powers are using BW in Korea, there are no specific indications that specific BW defense training Is currentlyThe USSR may be relying upon its regular medical, veterinary, and phylopatho-logical services as sufficient to care for any BW emergency. Moreover, Soviet civilpreparations for defense againstwarfare also are somewhat adaptable to biological attack, especially the medical and decontamination facilities.
ACTIVITIES AND RESOURCES BEARING ON CP/ll DEFENSE
The ultimate effectiveness of Soviet civil defenses in an emergency will largely depend upon the capabilities or limitations of theat their disposal. These resourcesthe regular public service agencies, such as health, transportation, flrefighting, police, communications, construction, and others. Thc effectiveness of Soviet civil defensewill also be governed by the country's economic production capacity, which will limit lhe supply of equipment or emergencyOther limitations are imposed byand population distribution and by thc extent to which civil defense needs arc taken into account In city, regional, orconstruction planning. All of the above factors are apparently taken Into account in the Soviet civil defense program, and plans for the integrated use of all available resources in event of emergency undoubtedly exist.
Police and Firefighting Resources. The highly developed police services under the Ministry of State Security (MGB) form anmiliury organization, whose uniformed police are normally responsible for law en-
Country &
USSR7
tion
illion)
In addition, in recent years schoolhouses suitable for emergency conversion to hospitals have been built in locations which fit civilplanning. Improvement of ambulance services also has been stressed. Although the USSR is short ofs, it has many subprofessional medical personnel (feldshers) who are trained to performdiagnosis and treatment and minor surgery.
ost pharmaceuticals are kept in central supply depots and distribution is controlled
forccmcnl, regulation of order and public safety, and protection of public and private property. In an emergency, these forces would have extensive capabilities for enforcing laws, maintaining order, and warning the population. The firefighting system, like the MPVO, is part of the MVD. Although proper equipment is often lacking, the system is well-organized. The fact that both firefighting and MPVO are part of the samenetwork provides for close coordination of the two activities.
edseds
edical Resources. The large and complex facilities of thc Ministry of Health, whichall aspects of medicine and sanitation in the USSR, are closely integrated with thc MPVO system. Although the quality of its hospitals, drug supplies, and medicalare inadequate and sometimes evenby US standards, the Ministry of Health has expanded remarkably in recent years,in quantity of personnel and facilities. While these facilities vary irom one locality to another, the USSR is by no meansof medical faculties, as can be seen by comparison of numbers oi hospital beds in the USSR with those in the US:
eds
eds
centrally. In case of war, priorities in favor of military needs would probably lessen reserves available for civilian defense purposes to such an extent as to make certain drugsIncreasing production,ore favorableith respect to blood plasma and blood substitutes, although no stockpiling is evident, the USSR is known, from its Worldxperience, toarge capacity for obtaining and processing and distributing whole blood.
oj
Transportation Resources. In icccni years, attempts have been made to improve thrvehicular facilities, in quality as well as quantity. Motorcycles and trucks havebeen made available to MPVO and DOSAAF, although to what extent thc supply meets the needs is not known. Aircraft of the Civil Air Fleet of the USSR has, on occasion, been withdrawn from commercial service to meet emergency needs and couldart of civil defense transportation. Specialized medical aviation services arc currentlyby some units of the Civil Air Fleet to fly medical personnel and supplies toreas and to transport patients to hospitals by ambulance plane.
focfcpfiino. In postwar years, the USSR has undertaken an extensive stockpilingwith special attention to theof storage and maintenance facilities,underground space. Although no stockpiles have been identified as beingset aside for civil defensethe following items of importance to civil defense needs are known to be subject to reserve: fuels, tools, air defense and sanitary equipment, chemicalautomotive equipment,equipment, illuminating and signalrope, anti-friction compounds, heatmaterials, asphalt, cement, etc There are Indications of static reserves of pharmaceuticals and medical supplies.
rotective Construction. Present shelter facilities in the USSR consist primarily of those which remain from World War II. The audible warning systems and designations of shelter areas in large cities have not beenbut there is no evidence that thesearc being renovated or prepared for use. There are numerous reports, however, of provision for shelter facilities in newDwelling construction specifications ln some areas, such as Stalingrad, includefor shelters. Some new shelter areas arc also being provided by new structures and in-
stallations which can be used as auxiliary air raid shelters or which have been constructed with thatecondary purpose. Auxiliary shelters Includeailroad and other tunnels, mines, cement bunkers, aqueducts and sewer pipes, cellars, and bridgeTunnels dug recently in Moscow for subway expansion and for other vehicular traffic were probably built with civil defense needs in mind. Special bombproof andshelters reportedly exist for use of key government officials in Moscow.
S. Evidently civil defense needs arc taken into account ln much of the new* construction In the USSR. Construction agencies maintain close liaison with military organizations by regularly retaining defense specialistsmembers ofhc duty of these specialists is to monitor construction plans from the point of view of defense. Monitoring consists of preventing, where possible, the concentration of Industrial plants and railway facilities. In the planning of schools, thespecialist considers their possible use as emergency hospitals or barracks. Kc also tries to insure the location of hospitals at the edges of towns.
ivil defense needs are probably also taken Into account in Soviet long range urban and regional planning. The development ofbetween regions for mutual aid and sharing of equipment in event of emergency Is apparently contemplated. Unconfirmedalso indicate the existencelan for thc emergency decentralization of Sovietinto regional subsections. In the event of the loss of communication with the central government, these subsections could carry on all necessary central direction of the area. Thc focal points of these subsections are probably the Union-Republic Councils ofand other existing local governments. In an emergency these bodies wouldassume authority over war industry and supply centers in their areas.
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Original document.
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