Territorial Issues in the Sino-Soviet Dispute
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SUMMARY
Territorial issues along (lie PKC-USSH border reflect the overall Sino-Soviet dispute and have been used by" both sides to vent it.hen broken 6ff, and resumedave failedailure! that results its much from Peking's Inflexible conditions for negotiation as from the Issues and territory actuallyispute. Ifouhdnry settlement is finallyno sizable territorial exchanges >rc expected. Although all major territorial issues have already been publicized, less important sovereignty problems could arise ond^ demarcation or redemarcation of the lengthy border might prove troublesome.
Territorial problems include)hose arising from undefined river boundaries in the caslerrf border sector, where no agreement exists on the allocation of several hundredecond category of problems, applicable principally to the Pamir area, concerns the validity of certain, boundary treaties, Other problems, of unknown complexity and seriousness, involve the .demarcation of landor their redemarcat(on whoro.the original survey may be in question or boundary markers jiave disappeared.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Development Current Negotiating Positions
Specific Territorial Problems
Undefined Riverine
Border Rivers end Their
Chlmnnyn Island Area
' Other Disputed Islands
Boundary Agreements nt Issue
Pamirs
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Land Boundaries Requiring Demarcation or Rcdcmnrcnrion
Western Sector
Lake Khanka to Tumen River
Prospects
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3
3
2
12
Par,c
2
fold-out following, Appendix
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7
9
10
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MAPS
ic..(
Chlna-USSH Borderfacing 1
China-USSR Border: Eastern Sector/off owing
J I ! t
* f t ; * '
China*USSR Border: Westom Sector following.
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SECRET
Issues In T
Nearly nil oflIometor Sfno-Sovic! bouixJniy li basedh century trciitlcs nogotl-ntctlime when nn expanding tsarist Russia came In contact with the distant outpostseakening Manchu China. Russia thereby acquired sizableby Peking to% million *qiinrcsincehenturies hadunder at least nominal Chinese control. The wordcr region wasor sparsely Inhabited by nomadic groups neither Ronton nor Chinese,
Most ofllomctcr eastern part of tho Sino-Soviet border Is Conned by the Amur and Ussurl Rivers. Exceptrrnll segment at tho extreme western end, the boundary was established by tho Treaties of) andhina claims that these treaties resulted In the lossillion square kilometer* of territory that had been Required by tho Treaty uf Nerchinsk (Nip-chu)his treaty, which ended the Initial Russian penetration and colonization of tho Amur region, defined abest as can be deciphered from the vaguo and ImpreciseIncorporated nearly all of the Amur Btttfl within China. During thoenrs ofowever, tlio vast forest lands of tho Amur-Uisuri territories wereunsettled and undeveloped by China andalmost exclusively tho domain of scattered Tunguslo tribes.
One exceptionmall Mmichu-Inhnblted nrcn,ocated south of Dlagovc-shclicnsk on (he left bank of the Amur. This area was specifically allocated to China by the Treaty of Algun, but nt ihn turn of thenvo of nntl-Chlncse feeling In Russia resulted In the death of many of the Mnnchus and five forced removal of other* across the Amur. Althoughmentioned by Chlnn In the past, It Is not clear whether the Chinese have actively pressed ihe issite.
St
e Sino-Soviet Dispute
Theilomctcr western section of tlio Sino-Soviet border divides Ihe Chtnesc-niled eastern fringe of traditionally Islamicfrom the gigantic Sovlct-controlled portion, which extends westward to the Caspian Sea. This boundary also, except for the southern segment, was defined by the Treaty of Peking. It was Inter demarcated In accordance with the Tnrbagntny) and apparently also the Treaty of) and modified by the Treaty of III (or St. Petersburg)lio southernmost segment. In the high Pamirs, was determinedChinese participationritish-Russian agreementesigned primarily touffer zone between British India nnd Russia.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Most of the economic development nnd setlle-ment In the frontier region Is oa the Sovieta fact that docs much to explain the futility of Peking's demandsoviet military withdrawn! from tho disputed territories. Along the eastern section, contrasts arc particularly jjuirojnd Soviet security Interests most| On the Soviet side the Trans-Siberian Rninond closely parallels the border, connecting the cities of Rlngo-voshchenskpurhabarovsk, and Vladivostok with each other and with the western USSR; agriculture Is important around these nnd other cities and along tho middle Amur Itctween tho Rurcyn and Zcyn Rivers and In the KlianW-Ussuri lowlands; nnd regionally significantplants are located In the major urban centers. In controst, the Chinese side of the frontier remains little developed and sparsely populated. Most of the small Chinese frontier towns andc directly'connected only by Ohs border riversalthough nmst roads arc oriented toward tho Chinese Interior. Improvements In rouds along tho frontier have Ik-cu mnde since the lnte iOGO's.
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TIhi cunliosts between the two sides of tin: lioundnry aro Im sliarp In the western section. Settlcnicnti and agricultural areas aro scattered along both sides north ol tho Tien Shin; several of the more Important ones He In east-west stream valleys thato border. No sizable cities or mnfor agricultural areas aro located Immediately adjacent to tho boundary, and no maforatlon routes parallel the border. Farther south,ho Tien Shan and other high mountainhcro Is Uttlo permanent settlement orctivity.
i CURRENT NEGOTIATING POSITIONS
I Strtco lb enunciationheasic 'Negotiating position of Peking calls 'c*ollowing:
recondition to an overallreliminary agreement of mutual
econd precondition, withdrawal of armed forces from all disputed areas along tho present de facto Slno-Sovleteffect, requiring withdrawal only by tho USSR because It occupies virtually all of thoterritory other than tho uninhabited river Islands;
Confirmation by tho USSR that treatiesto the present SIno-Soviet boundary are "unequal" and were Imposed on China bysslanless stress apparently has been placed on this point;
Chinese willingness, norethclcss, to accept these treaties as the basis for an overallof the Slno-Sovletdeliberate display of Chinese
Return, subject to mutually agreedof territories now occupied or under the control of either party In violation of thesereturn by the USSR, to China;
Conclusionorn equitable Slno-Sovlet treaty to replace the "unequal" treaties, and survey and demarcation of tho boundary.
The USSR rejects lhc Chinese demand lhatforces be withdrawn fiom all irrU Peking claims to be In dlqinte. Mo-row feelsull-back from these areas would lend credence to the legitimacy of the Chinese position andtho outcome of the negotiations. Soviet official* havo softened their original adamantgainst relinquishing any territory to tho Chinese and now offer to return some islands In tho Amur and Ussurl to China. There Is no hint, however, of any willingness to compiomlse on cither the Chlmnaya Island area or the Pamirs,
SPECIFIC TERRITORIAL PROBLEMS
UNDEFINED RIVERINE BOUNDARIES
Border Riven and Their Iilandi
The most pressing territorial Issue Is theofslands In the border rivers, none of which were allocated byh tcntury treaties. The4 Soviet negotiatingwas that all of the Amur-Ussuri Islandsto the USSR, but Moscow has graduolly moderated Its sJand and offered to returnslands to Chinese control. Although no cvj-dence Is In hand, the new position was probably reached afta examining the (stands' relationship to tho deepest part of the main navigable channel, thewidely recognized method of river boundary delimitation.
Generally, international boundaries nlongrivers follow the thalweg, and the ownership of islands is determined accordingly. Shouldchanges occur in the alignment of tlio main channel, prevailing practice In International law Ii to leave the boundary where originallyeven though water subsequently may cease to flow In that channel. In contrast, the boundary may be altered by gradual changes In tho courseorderotherwise agreed by treaty.
Most of the Ami'r-Ussuri Islands arc small and low-lying, many are marshy or swampy, and some are littlo more than mud or sand bnnks. Some of the Islands are Inundated following spring breakup of river Ice and after mid-summers, butlu.-h. tree growth an Pk-ny Islands Indicates that flooding is not pnlanfMJ Although stream-
bed changes can occururing flooding, the sire and physical characteristic* of the Islands appeor to change Uttlo. Indeed, tlic evidence Is overwhelming that during the lastears the. navigable channels havo remained relativelyomparison of Japanese navigation maps of thethorecent maps
liat no major realign-
menu have occurcd. There has been some shoaling
.and deepening and minor alterations in the slxc and location of mud and sand banks, but these changes havo not significantly altered theof tho thalweg.
Very few of th- river islands are permanently Inhabited, with the notable exception of Chlmnaya; they servo as sources of hay and firewood and aro visited from tlmo to tlmo by flsliermcn. Island scttlemcnU would in fact have no economic ad-vnntage over those on the river banks. An island settlement could bo established for political reasons, but It would bo both vulnerrbto to attack and difficult to supply. Even most of the border posts nro located on the banks of the boundary riven whero logistical support can be more readilyWhilo island occupation might strengthen tho claim of tho occupying side. In the current atmosphere it wouldighly provocative act.
Uland Area
Along tho border riven, tho most eontontlom segment Is tho Chlmnaya Island area, at thoof the Amur and Ussuri HI vers. This area has been the major territorial Issue betweenand Peking since bordor talks beganho poorly drained triangular area,ong and loss thanllomotcn wide, Is comprised of two largo Islands, Chlmnaya and Toraborovsldy (together named Hel-hsla*ula -u. ihoi'MnosRl.erol smaller Islands
't Along the southwes'. sldo Iskilomoter Tauikcvlcncva (Fu-yuan) Channel. Tho USSR consldcn this waterway, which connects tho two riven, to be the border.
Soviet occupation of strategically locatedIsland reportedly took place In theIn response to growing tensions withIn occupation of Northeast China, audhas been continuous s'neo thest
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' Uso of the thalweg principle to deflno the boundary would allocate tho Chlmnaya Island area to China, but the overriding factor In thercgnrdloss of the legalthe strategicof tho Islands In relation to Khabarovsk.vlet control of tho Island complex wouldhreat to the security of the city and tho Amur River crossing of tho Trans-Siberian Railroad. This vital supply linn will remain vulnerable even after
! completion of tho second Trans-Slborinntho Uaykal-Amur Magistral'decadoore hence, slnco no alternatlvb rail route exists or (Is planned between Khabarovsk and Vladivostok.
Seasonal shoaling of tho Kaxnkovlchevaccurs during low water stages that normallyend from lato June until lato July and again from :about the beginning of September until frcczcup ;ln early November, Thb shoaling hns not posed ;ony significant economic loss for tho Chineselittlo cargo has ever been shlppodho Amur and Ussurl Rivers during the navigation soason, which oxtends from about tho first of May until lato October. Each year tho Chinese nnnounco their Intentions to soil, during tho low wateraround tho cast end of Chlmuaya along what China regards as the international boundary. Soviet authorities counter by claiming that tho Amur and Ussurl In this area are USSR Inland witters, and that the Kn/nkovlchova Chnnncl forms the international boundary.he USSR hns oftcrcd to assist In deepening thoploy tho Chinese predictably ignore becauseWould imply recognition of tlio chnnncl ns tho de facto boundary. Whatever tho rclatlvo mcrlti of tlio Soviet and Chinese positions,of the flatus quo appears necessary to protect Soviet security Interests at Khabarovsk. Settlement of the sovereignty question for nearly nil of the other islands can likely be based on the thalweg formula, but the USSR will never agree to Its application In tho Chlmnnya Island nrea.
Other Disputed
The sovereignty of other Amur-Ussur!the well known Chcn-paoPa-ch'ahas been disputed. Ad-
herence to the" thalweg principle would allocoto to China all disputed Islands whoso locations hnve been determined. Sensitivity to direct observation from several Islands lying .opposite fJSSR settle* |monts probably accounts for Soviet claims to theso ^particular ulnnds. In most cases, however,ppears to ho no specific security^ Interest 'rcspon-isiblo for .tho-Soviet'
| Another boundaty segment, that may 'causa aj problem Is Uio upper'Argun Abovelt has been shown differently on Soviet andaps. The upper Argun flows In numeroushannelsarshy flood plain as much0 kilometers wideGenerally, theaps show tho boiimlaTjalong thehannel and tho Chlncso maps portray Itho westernmost During periods of highho channels may shift within the flood plain;ari son of recent maps with Jnpnnesc mnpsIn thondicates that somo channels have shifted. Technical problems could easily arise when actual boundary demarcation Isecaure of tlio physical character of the riverho difficulty In agreeing on Its main channel,his boundary sogmcnt scorns unlikely to becomoa major Issue.
No conflicting claims have been publicly voiced by either party along tho lower Argun River, on Lnko Khnnkn, or along the Sungacha River, which connects Lake Khnnkn with the Ussurtof Islands In these rivers has never been agreed, however, nnd thereossibility of this Issue beingome future date.
BOUNDARY AGREEMENTS AT ISSUE
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The Chinese claim of0 squnroIn the Pamirs* apparently fs based, mnlnlyh century Mnnchu military operations.5 the boundary in the Pamirs was determined, without direct Chinese participation,ritish-Russlnn ngrccmont designed primarily to define tho border between British India nnd Russia. Some sources refer to nn acceptance of thee facto line In4 SIno-Russinnhango of notes, but this correspondence has never iheen found, Altltough Chinese maps depicte facto boundary In this sector. It Is labeled "ln-;the only sector of tho entire border so 'designated. .
. No subsequent Chlncso government hashe Pamir boundary, and protests were voicedediately after5 agreement was signed.
From time to time Chinese maps havo shown vary-
"pamir"iluh, trcolpu. ftfolated vilify filled wtlh Rtacial debits and rimmed by hlaVrrowned ridim. Tho Pamir* am mode upumber of 'iueh valleys and ridges*.
Ing but sizable aicos in the Pamirs as part ofhe Cluncse aro probably less concerned with the border alignment ItsoU* than with Its origin, which they consider defective because no Chinese officials participated In It . j S!
Tho Pomirs seem an unlikely area to be coveted; the region Includes Ihe highest mountains In the USSR, with elevationseters. Most of. tne Pamirs are uninhabited except for smallof people who practice Irrigatedng In the broader stream valleys. The coal and other mineral deposits have gone unexploitedause of their Innccesiablllty, Tho bxtcnslvo Pamir jnowffolds provide abundant water to Irrigate the cotton growing areas of Soviet Central Aria to tho west, and ambitious Soviet plans call forof largo hydroelectric power plants utilizing tho water in thoi swift flowing* '
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The border segment between the Argun River and tho China-USSR Mongolia tripolnt might provethere It no direct evidence ili.it tliis hasontentious Issue. Soviet maps show the boundary as much asilometers south of the alignment depleted by tlio Chinese, leavingquare kllomctera of territory, between tho two lines. This tract Is strategically significant because It lies across (he major approach from the USSR Into Northeast China. The Soviet vcrclon apparently has served as the de facto boundary ever since the Tsltsihar Agreement was signedoribund Manchu governmenthis agreement Is of questionable legality, however, be-causo it was never ratified by any Chinesetho Chinese continue, therefore, to par-tray the boundary cartogrophically on the basis of tho Treaty of.
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LAND BOUNDARIES REQUIRINCXDEMARCATION OR REDEMARCATION
Western Sector;:
Ilometcr western* part of trie border, with tho exception of tho Pnmlrj dci fined In the second half ofh century by two sets of trcatlei between the'Russian!andGovernments. Althoughhinese claim to have lostquare kilometers of
j territoryesult of the Treaty ofhey have.noxpectations ofAccording to Pel" nig, the boundary should have
been drawn toho westernmosticketsn/ Manchu China to regulate
use of pasture* by nomadic Kazakhs insia. Soviet authorities In turn,hat0 boundary Is correct since It rolbws thefnt Chinese outpests, which werealod considerably cast of the maximum1 Treaty of III -transferred anquare kilometers from thell, end other areas to Russia.
Aside from tho Pamir trict, no other disputed area is known to exist alon- the westerndcsplto Its length and the disappearanceentury boundary markers. The boundar> oppeara to; bo wall known lo local Inhabitants In thefew areas whero (ho frontier Is permanently settled and major routes cross the boundary.several border Incident? have occurred In the past, and It Is possible that additional disputes could arise once negotiations reach the stage nfrecise alignment.
ther Important corrldon are
valloys of IhoTekes,and
r-myy (Black) Irtysh Rlvcrs"lt was through the
The physical character of the border and the ethnic composition of the frortler area could create additional problems Ininal boundary agreement North of theumber of natural corridors, primarily river valleys, cross thethe most Important is the Dzungarian Gate, connecting Kazakhstan and Slnklang Province
ther Iirinnrfant corridors nlloys of Tho T
Che
Dzungarian Cate that Moscow and Peking planned to link their Turkestan railroad systems. Although the Russians completed track-laying8 to the border town ofriendship" inbut actually an armedhe Chinese halted construction at Wu-lu-mu-chi (Ummchl) Inl thes tho Slno-Sc/let dispute
the border has neverarrier to the various ethnic groups Inhabiting (ho grasslands and valleys ;of tho USSR-China frontier.lghurs, and KIrglz live on both sides; other Ccn-jtrnl Asian ethnic groupsast majorityne or the other country. Slavs, primarily Russians
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SEPrCT;
have migrated Into Slnkiang during the past two decades; many have been settled In rural areas lo work on Und reclamationew of wl.lch arc located near tho border. ,
The presenceingle ethnic group along both sides of the Sino-Soviet borderource of border incidents. The most notable example was the exo-dui0 Kazakhs and Uighurs from Sfnkinngills incident developedesult of the temporary liberalization by the Chineseofmigration regulations and the consequentof efforts by minorityn great numbers to cross over Into the Soviet Union. When thb Chinese officials changed their mlndi Ihey brutally suppressed those who still Insisted on emigrating to the USSR. Since then lighterand Improved economic conditions inhave reduced transbordcr movement. The USSR continues to beam anti-Chinese broadcasts to Slnkiang Uighurs; the broadcasts appear to be only another facet of the overall dispute, however, rathererious attempt toenuine separatist movement.
and Ukrainians, have movedareasns'tlgated transbordcr incidents9 suggest the frontier. Similarly, Urge numbers ofn unclear demarcation of the boundary. In recent
years vegetation has been cleared along several
segments of ihe boundary, thus making It easy to Identify; In other areas, however, tho boundary Is less Identifiable where vegetation hns been allowed to,rcgrow or has never been cleared.
PROSPECTS
Until relations between tho two countriesa resolution of the border dispute is unlikely. Although border talks contlnuo to be heldno credible evldcnco Is available tothat Teklng and Moscow are now ctose toettlement.
Lake Khanka to Tumen River
ilometer boundary between Lake Khanka and the North Korea-USSR-China tripotnt at the Tumen River was twice demarcated in theh century. The precision wilh which the boundary Is depleted on recent Soviet mopswith the relatively generalized delineation on Chinese maps. This may simplyeed for: rcderrurcatien of the border In this generally
hilly and lightly popuUted sector where, inmany thellnitlative for reaching
nrrnt th* hound-rv
The greatest problem areall Chlmnaya. Even though the Chinese case for sovereignty over Ihe IsUnd tract appears to be supported by both the treaties and the geographic factors, strong Soviet security Interests are Involved, Although the Pamir segment is also Important, China's claim appears less legitimate. It seems unlikely ihnt the Chinese wilt press It asonly because It Is Improbable that the USSR willfromrge tract but also becausedemands would expose Chineseand thus be politically Infeaslblc. None of the other disputed tracts appears to pose asroblem: In many cases the major task involved Is demarcation or redemarcation of ihe boundary; many small isUnds In the frontier rivers, though, would change handsorder delimitation; In sum, the total territorial exchange In any future border settlement is likely to besmall.
: appears to rest with the Chinese, who, despite their :sclf-proclaJmed desire to reach an agreement, rig-Idly adhere to9 negotiating stance, which fa still totally unacceptable to the USSR. Continuing .polemical exchanges and the Intransigence of the Chinese! suggest that future border talks, at least
a border settlement
areas, the boundary follows no easily recognizable terrainndoubtedly many or thearkers erected8 have deteriorated, become overgrown, or have been destroyed. No'territorial disagreement between China and the USSR hoieen documented along this sector'of the border,,
but previous border clashes between Soviet isntil mafor leadership changes occur In the PRC, will Japanese troopi innd Alleged Soviet: j -continue to be protracted and at times acrimonious.
appendix
TERRITORIAL PROBLEMS ALONG THE SINO-SOVIET BORDER
and pplicable Trcalle* '
UNDEFINED RIVERINE BOUNDARY
Chlmnaya Iiland Ana (Hel-hila-tni) 5 km'/iaTreaty of) .Treaty of Peking (ll
Arnur-Utiurl WandaTreaty ofreaty of
pper* Argun Wver Flood Plila . li. (ESSIanVlIOmPJi -J j
' Treaty of) lio, for Man-chou-ll Ytclnlty onlyTreaty of) ' Tilrslhar)
BOUNDARY AGREEMENT AT ISSUE
. C)
Bilateral Agreement between Rgaila and Creat)
Mnn-chou-li0reaty of) Tiltilhar)
Nature of Problem
Neither treaty allocated Oieto Ulnndi,at tho confluence ofmur and Uuurl Rivera.
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Neither treaty allocated tho moraUttda In the Amur and Uinirl Rivera.
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Continuing ihlfu In channel*taettcal
! difficult let Ir dem-rc-Hon of bound.iy.
I Generally. Chineae map* iSow boundary along weftemmoft channelo-vtet* depict ft along earicmmoit
-channel. '
The Chlneae werearty to the treaty, and, Om tract. In poaaeulon of the USSR, hai never been recognlied by rubiequent Chlneae regiev* aa belonging to the Soviet Uoho, .
The Soviet Union baiet III delimitation of the boundary between the Argun River and the Slno-Sovlet-Mongollan trlpoint oo ihe Til'jihir Agreement, which no Chlneae government hai ratified. Thla boundaryolloinelrr* aouth of tho Chlneae alignment bated on the Treaty of Klakhta.
BOUNDARY REQUIRING OR REDEMARCATION
Sector
l) Treaty of Pekingreaty of)
Lake Khanka tol)
Treatyof)
claim the (ooquare kilometer*n the weilcmmost ei-tenilon of; mobile picket* tent to regulate use of pasture* by nomad* in Central Asia. The USSR maintain* tint the boundary li correctly demarcated on the bait* ofChinese outpoib.
Twice demarcated during thealf ofh century! tho differenceSo degree of precision with which theepicted on recent Soviet map* In compart-aon with the relatively generallredahowri on recent Chlneae mapaeed foriredemaroatlon.
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China-USSR Border: Eastern Sectoi
Original document.
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