Scientific and Technical Intelligence Report
iw 22
Selection and Training of Soviet Cosmonauts
mm.
6
Selection and Training of Soviet Cosmonauts
Project Officer
PRECIS
Theppear to have extensive cosmonaut selection and trainingums. The size of the cosmonaut corps wisew years ago to an. and new facilities and equipment have been added in recent years at the Star City Cosmonaut Training Center. Despite improvements in these programs. Soviet cosmonauts are still not as well qualified as US astronauts in many respects.onsequence of their inhibitions in taking independent uction. the Soviet cosmonauts ure generally not as resourceful in handling unusual or emergency situations. If the Soviets continue to rely on automatic systems rather than man to control their spacecraft, the supply of suitably trained cosmonauts for the space missions anticipated in the next few years should be udequate. If the cosmonauts are toarger role in the future as pilots and controllers/decision makers, however, wholesale changes will be needed in the cosmonaut selection and training programs.
Ttvimmi
SELECTION AND TRAINING OF SOVIET COSMONAUTS
Pifflrrr
36
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY DIRECTORATE Of SCIENCE AND TECHNOIOGY OflCe OF SOIF KC INTUUGcNCE
PREFACE
Publicity related lo the- Joint US-USSR space flight. the Apollo Sovuz(ASTPlistorted or (nitmentary view of the adequacypreparation to carry out manned space activity, jointeixicises and visits by US tourm lo Sovirt cosmonauton the other hand,nique opportunih- toand insight for evaluating ihe Sovirt
This re-port examines available informaiinn. unclassified sources, on the Soviet cosmonautand tmining programs The paperthe methods and equipment used by ihe USSR In selecting and training cosmonauts and examines ihe si* and composition of the cosmonaut detachment Emphasis iso significant differences between the US and Sovirt programs and an assessment is made of the capabilities ond limitations of ihe ommonai-'s to carry nut current and future space missions.
This report was prepared by the Office ol Scientific Intelligence and was coordinated within CIA. Information at5 was used.
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Page
SUMMARY AND
Selection of Soviet
IucI
Current Selection Criteria ond
Soviet Cmmonatil
Cosmonaut
Overall Training
Differences Between US and Soviet Training
Training Equipment and Facilities at Star
Joint Training fur
Training for Future oe Advanced Manned Space
TABLES
Page
Identified Members of Soviet Cosmnnajt ft
Type of Training Accomplished During Joint ASTP Training 13
FIGURES
Page
Cosmonaut Komarov Undergoes Vestibular Tolerance
Centrifuge Destined for Star City Under Construction at
A SKA Plant In Sweden, Mhrch
Training Mall at the Star City Cosmonaut Training
Training Mock-up of Salyut Space Station at the Slar City
Cosmonaut Training
oyuz Spacecraft Simulator at Star
SELECTION AND TRAINING OF SOVIET COSMONAUTS
PROBLEM
To describe and asses* the adequacy of the Soviet cosmonaut selection and training program*.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
USSR appcurs toarge-scale effort to select and train cosmonauts for space missions as measured by the site of the cosmonaut corps. The Soviets are eipanding their training facilitiesraining equipment including highlycentrifuge* The Soviet se led ton andprograms have beenm time lo time in responsehanging mission requirements in order lo insure healthy, technically oriented cosmonauts for more cnmplei. longer duration missions. These programs seem capable of assuring an adequate supply of trained cosmonauls for the anticipateduce missions within the nest few years.
While Soviet cosmnnuul training always has emphaslrej physical conditioning, change* have been made which Include the useailery of training procedures designed to overcome disorientation during flight, aecreased use of the isolation chamber and parachute training, and increased attention to group psychology. Recently, the Soviets ulso have reduced their admitted overemphasis on psychological and physiological stress testing for selecting cosmonauts.
Major diKetrnccs eiisl in the US and Soviet training programs, aside from the Soviet emphasis on physical conditioning and disorientation prncedurrs Soviet cosmonauts nrdinurilv ire not trained as rigrrrously in operational rrtaiCen us US astronauts, which in part reflects Soviet reliance on automatic systems rather than on man The Influence on and participation of cosmonauts in spacecraft and tiibsyitrm* design und dcvelopmenl are fur less than thut which isconsiderrd standard for US astronauts. Until the ASTP, extensive training and check-out of Ihe crew with mission controllers were not curried out by the Soviets despite their reliance on these controllerslight. The Soviets also have not fell lhat ihe scientist-engineer cosmonauts needed to be cross-Irained as pilots but appear to be more interested in the technical contribution they can make to Ihe onboard program and mission objectives.
From an Initial group of aboutmmonauts.wrre military fighter pilots, ihe Soviets have increased ihe numher of cosmonauts to an. The current cosmonaut group probably is composed of aroundilitury pilotsew are test pilots) with advanced technical training andcientist/engineers, muny of whom have graduaten utldltlon to high physicul and educutlnn.ilrerequisite for Inclusion In the cosmonaut detachment now uppeurs to be "politicalll recent additions have been members of the Communist Parly.
Even with the increuscd technical qualifications, the inflight competence of the cosmonauts hut varied considerably. Cosmonaut performance mayunction in part of the selectionind of preselection occurs since the majority of cosmonaut candidatesackgrrHind as military p'lots who were in good standing with Iheirhese candidates already have been trained to adhereo flight rules and regulations Hence,mup it may not he unusual lhat the cosmonaut* suffer overall fmm un Inability In innnvuto or handle unusual silualions. They appear utmost afraid or unable In deviate at times from the preplanned program The Soviet* appear lo rceognirr deficiencies in cosmonaut
pr.r
selection, however, und tuivr In *cd the Institute of Psychologydevelop methods for selecting individuals who will be more effective during uctuul spate missions.
The simulators and equipment used by the Soviets in cosmonaut training; have oeen relatively simple in comparison to those of the Unlled Stules. This relationship muy reflect more on the difference* In spacecraft design and philosophy concerning therole of man than nn the inability of the Soviets to provide such equipment.
Within theears, however, the Soviets have expanded significantly the facilities and equipment for cosmonaut training, particularly at the Star Gty Cosmonaut Training Center near Moscow. Upgraded simulators have been added along with laboratory space for familiarization with certain mission procedures undome of the most sophisticated centrifuge capability in the world will becomr available ul Slur City withinear or so 'vith the addition of two advancedkely uses foi these centrifuges are lo lest andurge group of cosmonuuts for earth orbital missions, as well us to expose them to the expectedorces during reentry from lunareveral advanced simulatorsarge earth orbital space station and for lunar missions have been noted ulacilities, but there Is no direct evidence that they have been used for cosmonaut training
On the basis of the training they receive. Soviet cosmonaut crews would not be expected to be us responsive or resourceful at US crews In abnormal situations. On the other hind, their effectiveness as onboard experimenters and observers, already demonstrated by some cosmonauts,xpected lo increase. Any expanded role for the cosmonaut us pilot and controller would require wholesale changes in the present training program.
discussion
OF SOVIET COSMONAUTS
Introduction
In9 the Sovietsmgram loroup of cosmonauts for spacepecial cosmonaut selection commission, established under the Scientific Reseurch Institute of the Soviet Air Forceas responsible for defining Soviet selection criteria that would meet ihe needs of the Vostok series ofince the US astronauts had just begun their training pmgram. ihe Soviets were uhle to evaluate the US selection stundard* prior to the start of their own program.
The Soviet selection criteria gee-rally were si miliar to those of the United States in that Soviet officials selected only pilots in top physical condition who were believed to have the ability to function effectively In an isolatednlike the United Stutes the Soviets tradrd maturity, education, und flight experienceounger, more athletic type of individual. The uverage age for the first group of cosmonaut* selected wasears compared toears for US astronauts. The Soviet candidates were selected largely from Soviet air force fightersquadron* with varying hour* of flight experience. None of ihe original cosmonauts were tesl pilots as frequently is the case with US ustronaut*.
The Soviet selection program for the first gmup of cosmonauts generally consisted of three phases: (I) initial selection bused largely on recommendation of others and documentation of family medicalhorough medical examination;hysical and psychological stresshe latter phase included tests on the centrifuge and vibration platforms along with simulated ascentsow-pressure or altitude chamber and tests for tolerance lo drcomprevslon. The cosmonaut candidate group then was subjectederies of special exercises oriented toward Improving physlcul conditioning and coordination, developing the cosmonaut's ability to move in the weightless state, and augmenting, his ubility to withstand the variou* environmental slnsscs such u* acceleration, high heat load, und hypoxia.
'Apart fram cosmonaut (raining, ihnr facilities are likely la hr used lo train pilot* to withstand the high gravitatlonul Icuee*prctrd ullh new advanced aircraft Swedish pilots flyln*'-formarus- aircraft err undergoingentrifuge- training a* are pilot* In Japan and Weil Germans The Soviet ceninfufr. hnwesrr. will he capahlf ol more Hnselv simulating, urtual flight rm-dilinns and providingccuralr data than an* other centrifuge in (he -mid.
Selection out of personnel could bt acisimullthed ul .my lime If lack of physical capability orncompatibility became apparent. ISychologicalMured: rmotlonal stabilityeek May In an Isolationugfritlblllty (ftum symptoms of Imagined hypoilatock ascentreuurepenitiunal memory (on continuous sequential tasks while subjected tond the ablllly lo react under stress (in selecting signal from noise under the pressure of limitedinal selection of cosmonaut candidates was made earlyear before the first Soviet manned space flight.
Eady in the program (after Chcrman1 flight inhe selectionwere modified significantly toattery of vestibular tests designed to eliminate the individual who was susceptible to vestibular disorientation during space flight
Current Selection Criteria and Procedures
The current criteria for selecting ctrsmonjut candidates, although generally similur lo those used for the selection of Soviet pilots, also incorporate several mutor changes from thine used to select thecosmonauts. The change* largely reflect the current operational requirement* of more complen und longer duration missions. The ntost Important change has been an attempt to upgrade ihe technical background of cosmonaut candidates The Soviets alto appear to havetoee fleiihle attitude toward the once stringent ph>skal rpqiilrements fur selection of cosmonauts which were drtigned tohilltlet to withstand the physical and psychological dema;:ds of space flight. The Strviets have openly admitted that they originally overdid the stress testing and now say it is not necessary toosmonaut for all estremes during flight.'
A psychomotor testing program has been incorporated into the selection process and appears to Inc'ude valid, objective measures to aid In the selection of emmnrnuthe Soviets have computerized the dutu in ut leant one psychomotor test which permits neady real-llrve readout of the test resultsather sophisticated reaction time lestimulated control system environment. This let involvesot which movesV screen in
Figuraosmooovrl Komarov Undergoes Vejtibvlar Toltrorvc* Tasting
on Identifiableomputer keeps track of the errors in real time and prints out the results.*
During selection and training, the cosmonuut is suid to undergo continual evaluation for what Is often referred to as his psychological reudiness toission. This flight readiness state appears In include his psychological com pa lability with other potent-al crew members, an analysis of an individual's personality, the kind of mlr he plays in bis Interaction with others, familiarization with psychological reactions during flight, and h'* emotional stability in stressful situations. Lastly, he undergoes so-called moral or political education In Communist ideology. Thus, the Soviets say lltetr program provide* the necessary moral und psychological training which is
SttsJEI
5csrct
in shaping fhe personalities of cosmonauts to undertake complex tasks In space.*
The Sovteti. however, do not uppear completely satisfied with the entire lelectlnn process sinre Dr. B. V. Lomovnstitute of Psychology In Moscow has been assigned the task of devising better methods of selecting cosmonauts (andn3 Lorr.ov Indicated that the selection techniques used in the USSR had to be reexamined, apparently due to some dissatisfaction with cosmonaut performance during flight. Dr. Lomov reportedly is developing on Integrated assessment of the individualrofile) which Is to Include physiological, psychological, and social factors. Dr. Lomov's goal appears to be toclid method for forecasting an Individual's effectiveness and reliability during flight. On several occasions. Lomov reportedly has expressed the view lha* the Sovietseal problem with crew selection. Although the Soviets believe they choose the best candidates initially for the training program, these individuals do not always live up to expectatioNS by the time the mission isomov may welt be referring to the seeming preoccupation of the Soviets to select Individuals with high tolerance to physical and psychological stresses for their training program svhlle neglecting ihe skills rtervwary for their mission performance, eg. piloting and technical skills.
The present cosmonaut selection process is carried out in severalhe initial phase is directedpecial mandate commission which is responsible for the screening of bolh civilian und military cosmonaut candidates and reportedly also for reexamination of the cosmonauts during their training and after their return fiom space. The initial phase, us describedovirt physician who helped to develop the procedures, is based on certnin documentation such as personal history statements and of recommendationsandidate's immediatend of Communist Partyhe criteria for Initial recruitment of the Soviet candidate differ somewhat from US practice In that the potential candidate ordinarily does not volunteer but is selected by his superiors. The selection for inclusion in the cosmonaut reserve group Is similar to US practices, however. In thu* excellent physical condition and professional experience are prerequisites. Since alt recent cosmonauts have been member* of the Communist Partyumber of years prior to their selection, membership in the Party now mayequirement inosmonaut candidate.
D'irittg the second phase, the potential candidate isedical examination, the objective of which is lo detect latentlie functional capability of 'he whule body und Individual systems, such as the cardiovascular, respiratory, rnd central nervous systems are investigated. Detiiledinclude neurologicul, olorhinolaivngologlcal and ophthalmologics! alongey and various biochemical and hematological tests. Physiological tests Include those lot gas exchange, external respiration, basal metabolism, and electrolytes. Electroencephalographs are evaluated and the vestibular runctiun checked. This phase Is conductedospital, and if the candidate is Judged clinically healthy, he undergoes the final phase, consisting of stress tests. For example, tolerance toxamined in low-pressure chamber ascents, as well at by exposure to gas mixtures with reduced oxygen content. Centrifuge tests are conducted to determine the Individual's tolerance to radial acceleration. Inigorous series of tests ts given to examine vestibular stress tolerance.
After completion of all the above phases, the special mandate commission decides whether to admit the candidate to training. If selected, the individuals are considered to be In ihe cosmonaut reserve group.1*
According to an assessment made of 'everal publications of Soviet medical and scientific personnel, onlyercent of those undergoing tlir selection procedures become cosmonaut candidates. Aboutercent are rejected In the Initial phase,ercent are eliminated during the medical examination, and anotherercent are rejected during the first month of training probably largely because of failure to pas* the stress tests."
SOVIET COSMONAUT DETACHMENT
) US visitors lo the StarTraining Center (Zvezdny Corodok).cosmonaut training centerauticalof Moscow, have estimated thatosmonauts in the detachment.members of this "roup are militarylhal a
smaller grouphich probably included thee In the reserve and those in active trainingpecific mission. '* Recent enlargement of the cosmonaut detachment is inferred from several Soviet reports of individuals who entered the
cosmonaut dr'uchmcnl at Star City0lthough the sixe of the cosmonaut detachment is not known with certainty, the rtli mated large number of Soviet cosmonaut* appear* 'n demonstrate that Ihe Sovietsontinuing and active commitment lo manned space flight.
An analyst* I " ** " "
ptibllcutlons indicates that the origlnul -roup ot cosmonai'tt probablyOf tt.Ii groupave curried out at least one 'puce flighthree of these veterans have died or H. ve been killed and six may slid remaio on active flying status. Some of ihe original group who never were selectedlight probably were replaced3 by military pilot* who had to meet the higher selection standards lhat were imposed after Tilov'i disorientation during hisear rattier the cosmonaut grotm had been augmented by the addition of probably lour to five women Including cosmonaut Vilcntina.4 the cosmonaut rroup was rnodifled ogain by the addition of the first engineer-scientist cosmonauts. At least two out nf iheown additional cosmonauts added then probably were selected specifically to carry out ihehree-man flight.
6 the cosmonaut detachment was relatively small, but after thatarge number of cusmonauts appears to have been added to the cosmonaut group. The candidates included6 do not appearhave beeningle group but probably were selected periodically during the
pastyears.,nal
candidates came through ihe Institute of Biomedical Problems (IMBPi In Moscow for their eumln'tlon in the selection process individually or In twos but neverroup or in large numbers. "
The enlargement of the grouprobably was necessitated by the need for additional cosmonaut* for the Soyut and Salyut prog rami and by the requirement for higher educational standards related In an expanded on-board program during earth orbital space station missions. All of the known cosmonauti inroup arr civilians. Almost all are rnglneenackground In aviation and spacecraft design and about two-thirds of this gmup have advanced degrees. There Is no evidence from background data on the known cosmonaut* that anv military cosmonauts were added tocorps6 onward all additions appear to he related tc an expansion of the technical capabilities of the cosmonaut*.
All of the original cosmonaut*acquired degrees in space engineering ul the Military Air Engineering Academy Imeni N. K. /hukovskiy. In spile of this upgrading of Soviet cosmonauts' technical abilities, certain Sovlel scientists from lime to time have appeared almost envious of the caliberstronauts. Under space flight condilioos Ihe demonstrated competence of the cosmonauts in general has varied considerably. Their performance slill suffers frequentlyuck of technical es pert lie und judgment. As recently as1 the Soyu*rew apparently exercised extremely poor judgmentesult of their technical limitations and seeming reluctance to incorporate changei to the flight plan In order to handle unexpected situation* *MI On the other hand, the crew onboard theission performed rather well on the whole and appeared to exercise some ability and judgment in handling the on-board experimental program and mission requirements n
In uddilton lo the military cosmonauts, the current composition of the cosmonaut gmup probably indudes several physicians from IMBP and engineers and scientists from other facilities Including possibly astronomers and geologists. According lo General V. Shatalov tsho it in charge of cosmonaut training, no women at present areur space missions, ilthough they will be used sometime in the future for long space flight. He Justified the latter statement by Ihe fact that In the USSR many women specialize in meteorology and medicine which are professions thut will he needed on orbital space stations. Other reports also indicate no Soviet plans to use women cosmoi-iurs. at least in ihe immediate future.11
The largest portion of the cosmonaut detachment probably consists of military pilots and those with engineering backgrounds. Somef theosmonauts who have flown on space rriivtinns previously are contldered still on actlvr fl'gbl status. The reasons the cosmonauts have left (he cosmonaut detachment include death, sickness during flight, and assignment to administrativeesearch, and design responsibilities. Six cosmonauts died including four killed during space flight*
COSMONAUT TRAINING
Overall Training Program
The cosmonaut training program I* divided into two phases, general and specific. Afler his selection, the
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Additions to Original Group
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not on act!va flight
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5EYBET
is given general training, which involve* preparation for activities which arc common tn all mi"ions This generaluncemed largely with physical conditianing and technical prepwration. Thraid to include acquisition of atinimum level of knowledge In subjectss space science and technology including space medicine and astronomy. During the general phase, the candidate also undergoes centrifuge training and testing under weightlessn aircraft flying parabolic orbits. Both military and civilian candidates are said to undergo the same level of physical training but differ in the theoretical and technical preparation needed- Military and civilian cosmonauts do not train together until they have been selectedpec! He mission.
After their initial period of training is completed the civilian cosmonaut*ule return to their usual work environment but are required to maintain their physicalt least one design bureaumall training facility for suchhe military cosmonauts ordinarily are detached to the Star Gty Cosmonaut Training Center, although some candidates reportedly remain in reserve with their military unit awaiting entry into the advanced, specific training program*1
Specificrovided when the crew has been selectedarticular flight. The duration of the specific phase of training probably varies with the complesilv of the mission, although as late0 one estimated it lasted only
uprimary crew and at least one backup crew are selected for this phase."
At the conclusion of the specific preflighl training, the cosmonauts are required lo take and pass an rumination relating to their training program and the upcoming space flight. Reportedly, the evssnvxiaul or crew with ihe highest markseU-cted for Ihe actual flight."
Differences Between US and Soviet Training Practices
With the exception of one physician cosmonaut who alsoilot, ihe civilian emmonauts hare not. to datr. been cross-trained as jet pilots The* receive some training on propeller aircraft.The reason for thi* minimal pilot training for civilians is that the Soviet* seem lo feel lh.it there i* no need toivilian fur piloting duties a* the military cosmonaut* already have considerable flight experience. This lack of pilot training (orcivilians is in contrast to the US-requirement in the Apollo and Skylab programs that all scientisl-aslronauts be fully qualified jetlie Soviets appear more interested in the Irvhnicul expertise thai ihe civilian cosmonaut can contribute to the on-board rxpenmen-lal program than in his piloting abilities. Piloting duties on board Soviet spacecraft, however, have not beet, extensive and arearge degree handled by automatic systems.
One of the most significant disparities between the US and Sovirt spacehe extent of familiarity with their spacecraft and Its subsystems. The Soviets say that during their training the cosmonauts visit the facility which develops the spa^eenft. Butp, irent thatittle direct inpu. or extensive familiarity wilh the development of the spacecraft by theven when the engineer-cosmonauts are collocnted at the facility which develops the spacecraft, compartmentalization probably prevents their interaction and influence in the development process, at leas: to the extent which has become standard for US astronauts. In the Uiiited States the astronauts have an important role in recommending improvements/modifications of the spacecraft from the early design stage.onsequence the astronaut benefits from an in-depth knowledge of hi* spacecraft's systems. In addition, utilization of the astronauts' experience in the earfy stages of development results in an improved 'pacecraft since suggested changes can be readily incorporated into the design. The limited cosmonaut partrcipation in spacecraftn example of Soviet compartmentalization of space systems development which hinders not only ihe efficacy of the final product but also limits the depth of training provided Soviet cosmonauts.
vqijiwnmil IrvrIrainine srtcntisrs pints
nam hj-r Nren ch-iricd rsliils Ifiknii1.jns.on
the Spue* ShuttJr ssill not h* rr-iulrrrl lo hrrsv mrnhrrs mml hr astronauts svith paint tralmni: and taperirnre.
Another difference between US and USSR traininghat Soviet cosmonauts do notule undergo extensive simulation of the entire mission with their mission control center and down-range communicationshis could haveactor in problems with mission control during unplanned situations on certain earlier missions andack of extensive practice and planning by the Sovirts for contingency situations. In the Apollo-Soy uz
SCORET
EI
Projectowever, the cosmonaut* undcrwmt more ritemlve mission simulation than ever before.
From II* beginning Ihe Soviet training program 'or csnmonauts ha*emphasized physical conditioning toa significantly greater degree tb-in has the US pros-ram. which has considered physicalinimal ard largely voluntaryhe original cosnv.iiaut gmupigorous program of stress adaptation and testing Includingayn :u. isolation chamber and extensive parachute training. At the presentowever, neither exhaustive parachute training nor confinement in an isolt'.ionequired of thepparently, the reasoning behind the prolonged confinement was lo test emotional stability and to give the cosmonauts an idea of the psychological consequences if communication with others were lost. Isolation and confinement were relevant test parametersan missions but were questioned by Soviet investigator* concerning their applicability to muttiman crews. Studies In gmup dynamics and the interactions and compatibility between crew member, have now assumed increased importance in space flight as they have in ihe US program. The Institute of Psychology under Dr. Lomov, for example, has been given responsibility for applying .esearch in these areas to the spacece the cosmonaut now lands inside his spacecraft Instead of ejecting, as was the standard recovery option on the Vostok flights, purachute training also has little direct application to present cosmonaut training. Only minimal parachute training now is provided foe cosmonauts and this appears to be largely for experience In handling stressful situations.
A major difference in training practices between the US and USSR is In the area Involving the vestibularnlike the United States, the Sovietsery extensive vestibular training progmr" The effects of weightlessness and the spaceon the vestibular system is thought to be the root of disorientation problems encountered by theduring flight as well as of certain undesirable autonomic nervous system responses largely described under ihe term motion sickness. To counteract these problems, which were first noted onlighthe Soviets have an exhaustive vestibular testing nod training program largely geared toward conditk.iing the cosmonauts vestibular system to be less sensitive to irritants. The need for this type ofelevant lur the Soviet* *ince the So*or spacecraft must rotate In orbit to maintain Ihe proper orientation ol lis solar panels.
The Soviet*hat individual sensitivity to disorientation and motion sickness can be changed. Once an optimal (but unspecified) level of conditioning is reached and training ceases, it apparently takesonth* before tbe individual become* deeondilioned again "It is believed that the So* lets will continue In emphasize this typr of training particulady as missions become longer and more complex to insure optimum cosmonaut physiological ability to perform onboard tasks.
Training Equipment ami Facilities at Star City
US sources have evaluated Soviet cosmonaut training simulators in general as adequate equipment but far less sophisticated than similar UShis lack of sophistication may be due to several factors: the Soviet philosophy of giving the cosmonautinor role in the control of hisajor reliance on automaticack of appreciation of the need foe rigorous training ofonaut. and the traditional Soviet philosophy of using the simplest device to accomplish the desired end
With the increasing complexity and duration of *puce flights the Soviets, within theave expanded significantly their manned space trainingntil the constniction of Star Oty such facilities were centralized in the general Moscow area. Even so. the cosmonauts had lo travel to various other sites for some of iheir training, particularly with certain equipment such as centrifuges and on occasion for tests in pressure chambers. These kinds of equipment either are now available ot very shortly will be at Star Gty. Additional facilities include those for the physical conditioning of theesearch laboratories (including those for practicing mission proceduresumber ol upgraded spacecraft simulators andiving- area is collocated at Star Oty and house* the cosmonaut* and their families as wellarge number of support personnel.11
The available training equipment1 at Star City include*
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The Soviets apparently make extensive use of the centrifuge In their cosmonaut training program. This is contrary lo US practice where astronaut training on the centrifuge has been significantly deceased. Soviet use of the centrifuge probably has three general purposes:
To faatovutar rile cosmonaut wtiK aeerferartjos tsMcttn dttrattoa(otrmUy.
To rtrtrnolneofersnces toOlWn aeewdlr*eb ripretfd dtsrtn* attstton Uttrttst and rreolry ptsasrs.
Hi To adapt the individual toarorbnttnn "
The centrifuge, which contains the largest direct-currenl motors ever built (IBSonarm. IS meters long, and ir. one of the nun! advanced centrifuges in the world. Twogondolas, seating one und two persons, can he driven ulpmegrees of freedom. The gondola. conFir.ui'd to hold two persons, is capable of beingo simulate un altitude environment. In this manner, the subject can be exposed not only to Increased gravitational forcesoecreased pressure or variety of breathing gas mixtures. In addition, the gondolas can be further modified or controlled to both increased and decreased temperatures and relative humidities.
The Soyui fmsstonask simulator, appears lo have the cupubillty of simulating all mission phases except docking. Itomplex computer-driven view screen which duplicates the scene outside with simulated realtime changes. Including the expected stellar and earth views as various contml commands arehe Soy in mission simulator also includes the caoabilitv for simulating orbital corrections, emergency procedures,
and reentry,M
RET
A docking simulator is drsotcd wWy lo training in docking. White the controls operate differently and are nol at precive u* US controls for this type of simulator, ihe simulated docking tecl.niquc ha* been estimated by one US source as quiten Ihe docking procedure training. Iheull-scale models that are fully automatic and Iwve the ability lo rotate and lum. Theyombination of direct visioneriscope and three television cameras in Ihe simulation. The scale models are workedeedltuck servo-loop system where the trainees are flyingtationary simulator while the other training device (or Suyuzoes all the maneuvering.**
In addition lo the mission-oriented simulators at Star Olv. the Soviets were known to(in earlyull-scale metal mock-uppace station at the Institute of Vtedioul and Biological Problems inhis simulator is primarilyool and is suitable for evaluating various space station system design configurations in terms of equipment and humanun-machinet could be used, however, for familiarizing and training cosmonauts for possible space stations planned as follow-on fnr the Sal* ut space station. The *imulator, along with available computer facilities,reat deal of power in terms of the operations which it can perform on human responses ond the feedback it supplies lo the human operator.
The Soviet*arge number of device* for thi* vestibular training including the Khilnvuranynd theevolving chair. One idea behind using this equipment is that the degree of excitability of the vestibular apparatus depends on visual stimuli and on the character of muscular contractions, primarily the muscles of the neck and tnink. In theory, the sensitivity id (he vestibular apparatus increases with the flickering of objects in the field of visionan is bulancing himself on an unstable support and when there are no stable muscular strains. The following Method has been used by Ihe Soviets to increase vestibular tolerance: (I) rotation followed by transfer to an unstable platform, fiil rocking. (Hi) rotation with active lilting of the head
"TKr Khlknlrtg la orWch ihr uippnm inns* artlh iht gear. nwlnlalMm ihe cosrr-cnaut paralhi to the emmdjwtminc. bark and forth
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iv> balancing, andomplex vestibularmi.i1 ilimiili. The methodnl.igy indode* rotationpecial chairtransition In un unstable support ijin.li.ii.lvockingjieciul four-beam Khiim nuking dr. IceI. trainingolling device with oplntunclic stimulation (Ihr optokineticestationhair wilhsequential indinutions and straightening* of the body und hrud. und bu lancinghair wilh un unviable vupporl. Available equipment allows investigation of the vestibular, visual, undsystems individually or in combination "
In all ol ihe above investigations which involve (orinlh" accelerations, vestibular studiesThe Soviets appear to have an incicused interest in cerebral or intracranial circulation und have identified what thev consider In he major, qualitative categories of hemodynamicoriolis stress, which can be used a* selection criteria for1
Another training device is describedtandard rotating room la'tle is known concerning the delaik plx-pl that during theneriMimvoil lo rsisl at uit unknown loca'.iou in Zhuknvski) which may be the Central Aetohvdrn-dvnamtc* Institute orhis mom was described by one Sosirt source asiameterrtrr* and was .illached to the endentrifuge alxiotclrr* in iliamelrr. The tevarrh was said Ir-involve Mudshuman hcfiavior as affected by tbe vr^libol.ir ssstrmul>ject is in continuous rotation for several days. At that lime and at that location Itssimiderrsl an espi'rimetilal drsice andntitttcmnvtanuirl training.
joint Training for ASTP
cat prriod of unnt IS-Sosiet training fur ASTP proudest further insight inlo tlie Soviet philosophi. methods, and equipment irsed:osiiioiiaiil* for space flight. The ASTP training was the mint estenslse evei curried out bv Soviet cosmonauts us they followed US training
"The uplnkinrticlaling ilmmihr imitl* puinlnlullrrnndilnpn Ihr mimrnjul ii wj|<i(I. mmint With ihrol ihr dram, thr .1n iinnxh- Ihr lllin4.ui nl rnnvrnarnt
"ThrllrrO Inamra. ilifrinrsi vrrtian.'ll h* -rnn.ine, fjnn-jlU-
nrxunilothrjd
P .ii 'iahilr in aipin
philosophy which is charaeterisli tally ngoroos
Kaily in the ASTP trainingt liecame upparrnt ili.it ihe cosnitm. iitf- ordinarily did not act us diagnostician* and problem solvers as US astronautsespite contrary views noted in tbe Soviet press expressing the need to function creatively while constantly doubling and critki'lng existing concepts, norms, regulations, and instructions, the Soviet* appear to have liltlc confidence in the cosmonaut as un innovator, controller, and decisionmaker. During prattler sessions between the crews undontrol in simulating nonnominal situations, for example, it Isreame apparent that the Soviet crew had been given the questions und answers ahead of time seemingly in an effort to give evidence of their excellent performance capabilities.**
A US visitor to the Star City Cosmonaut Training Center during the joint training sessions commented thai the cosmonauts were rarely critical of each other or anythinge said they appeared to live affluently and perhaps were concerned aboutero statu* should iheir behavior depart (mm Mime prescrilied norm. While thev comments mayit overdrawn, they doersonality characteristic of some cosmonaut* noted during flight which can perhaps be described a* fear-of-failure. Some cosmonaut* seemingly are reluctant to incorporate change in order lo handle unexpected situations. It i* almost as if they are afraid lohange in approach. Isrcaiiv il would be outside the accepted or established program and hence lead to assumed punishment.
The cosmonaut* were nol used to the intensity or depth of training provided US astronauts, and it was dear that any training sessions in iheetween the cosmonaut crew and mission controller* had been minimal. The joint training program called for many hour* of briefings, training session* with their own and tlie other country's spacecraft* andlong with extensive simulations of the entire mission und communications checkout between the crew- and groundhev mission simulation* were by fat the most extensive ever carried nut hy ihene I'S source relate* thai during Ihe ir.iniir.i.he cosmonaut* were more than ready to quit just soon a* the scheduled working dayather than put in extra time lo study ihe flight plan or spacecraft Mihsvstems a* i* commonly done by USastronauts.*'
Tcbli 2
Typo ol Training Accomplished During Joint ASTP Training Visits
Training
. .
Apollo Sysrteera FJrieflngy ApolloBrteflnga txperimont BHofings
ContingencyModulo:*xjui s
Docking Moduleof^rainl cMi ora Training TV Catrteranm Canaara Briefing Onboard Ducuiiation
' Joint Activity Waiklhroughs
Joint Activity Glmulationa Soyuz Syeterna Briefings Soyuz Sirrmjlator DocfcrvgSJnaiiotor Soyuz Mockup Sovta Spacecraft Briefings
Inspection Soyuz Sp**cecraftLaunch Site
USSR
Training for Future or Advanced Manned Space Flight.
With the addition uf (he new centrifuges ut Stur CJtv. ihe Soviets will have wmr uf ihe most vrphis-tirated renlnfoee cjpahilitv inld fur testing and training humans under accelerationhis uquhilitv upprars to he far in excess nl current Ntslrt requirementsanned sjkiis" missions Tlie
likrls esplaii.itiuns ftif their use at Star Cits
appear lo he;
||l Roulmr Inline Itilrxnf "I I i- ol1.xnrhtd
|ZIt lu,lf; |hmv*
>
S
4
3
4
5
if.rs
fit TrjINnf id in lots (nraikunrvd jii-.Ii ilrutn
a liltrnjMr ittr piW"Ofcjjod
tK*nmliitniH riprnrnml dnntf rnmhat khivphi tstai til* wpxiilU nrst. klor piloti Ttw rento can I*olrst pints tn InRatrrl prmnrr tints or unoVi condOiom olicK-
Other than the simulalot al the Institute for MtoV-.il amirroUrms IIMIWM lor shutting the design options for mntr iiib.incrtl earth orhil.il
stallnns, lilllr isbout (sossihle Sosirl 11
devices rrlaled to more jdv.oucd Sovirlmission*.lime lose
reporteil thai the Nutlets possess lon-irhe simulator* wtiuii haveesi ntsrtl .ill
to i. (nnried .it IIM> facilities in ihe I'SMt and have not. |h'r sr. Ii-enli itiitcosmonaut ft.ilniiu;
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dcviie* Out' Soviet scientist slutrd thai aba mlRil>in- lunar deviceul ihr spucesiiit und lift' supportlie partiillipurisose facility forat Tomilino, he hudprciulin outer spate and on the lunar surface.testing subjectsunar spacesuit underwilloperational earfy inone-sitthhe lunar gravityaere achieved by suspending the subject itSovietsppear to he interested inanglereadmill ulong whichonboard Iheir *puwraft duringore sopliUticutrdhey feel that when there i* alunar gravityrobablybetween launch and landing of uat theite of IVI BP just northwestmust be reinforced monthly during ihe Thi* IMBP siteajor Soviethave stated thai thelight is. the greater
need for un update of lunding skills undIn lunding. Therefore, they reportedly intendmore onboard, prelunding training in ihe future.
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