Training LUC Personnel: Moscow's toycsiinent in Polifka. Penetration
REVIEW
Training LDC Personnel: Moscow's Investment in Political Penetration
An lattl&gracc AWMcnent
Cora menu and a
Training LDC Personnel: Moscow's InTCstmonl in Political Penetration
Judgments
tntotmatio* avalttibU
Ol ofn ihli report
is training an increasing number of students, military personnel, and civilian technicians from less developed countries, both in the USSR and in LDCs themselves,eans of penetrating tbese countries. Insiruciion stresses development of practical skills but is heavily laced with Marxism-Lenin ism. Training is administered through three programs;
An academic proframkills-oriented education atand specialized institutes in the USSR.
A military trainingin hostinstruction in basic and sophisticated military hardware, insurgency and countcrinsurgcQcy operations, and intelligence collection.
A technical training program for specialists, including civilian engineers, trade unionists, and journalists.
evidently not administeredentralprovide the Soviets with the means of achievingand long-range objectives, not the least of which is the opportunity to penetrate overtly and covertly the political, military, and technicalof target countries. The programs provide the opportunity for penetration in three ways. First, they develop indis-iduals whose future career paths may give Moscow access to ihe fevers of power in their country. Secondly, theyetwork, of individuals whoommon training experience and who in time may permeate the elites aod power structures of their countries. Indeed, the Soviets have established "returnee" clubs in LDCs to keep the Soviet connection alive among their LDC alumni. Finally, they provide, especially through the military trainingeans for Moscow to place significant numbers of Sovieu in target LDCs. In this regard, the proliferation of advanced combat aircraft and missiles particularly has enhanced the opportunities for Sovietmilitary instruction in LDCs.
Moscow continues to increase the resources devoted to these programs. We estimate lhat ihe number of academic students being trained in the USSR0 as ofercent increase inears. The estimated number of Soviet military technicians providing training in LDCs amountsarked increase fromecade ago. LDC mililary personnel fromountries and insurgent groups are also being trained in the USSR. Moreover, the functional scope of the military training program has been expanded to include tactical training in insurgeno, counterinsurgency. and intelligencetraining, which in lur view may be designed to assist LDCs in protecting iheir "revolutionary gains."
AvtMllIVSI
We believe lhc Soviet! meal certainly view ihe naming programsuccess. Tbe academic program has no: yet produced an LDC president or prime minister, bul the USSR can count among iuember ol* tbe ruling SandiniMa Directorate, four LDC cabinet ministers, three ambassadors, and three scbcabinei directors. It alto has alumni in tbc insurgency nkovementi against tbe governments of El Salvador and South Africa. Moreover, tome of Ibe bureaucracies and professions in key LDCs have many graduate* of Soviet universities. The military training program has had the greatest impact among heavily dependent clients in the Middle East. North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa. Finally, the Soviets have also benefited from the hard currency earnings of in-country miliiary training.
These gains are not without some costs. Some LDC students return from study in the USSR unconverted to Marxism-Leninism and critical of KGB surveillance, travel restrictions, and racial discrimination Trainees in the miliiary program* complain about hlataniproselytising and deliberate underlining so asether their aimed forces to SovietAlio, the need lo accommodate large numbers of Soviet military personnel In-country has engendered mixed reactions among LDCs. At its worst, Soviet insensilivity to Egyptian nationalismart in provoking Egypt's expulsionechnicians2 In Algeria and Mozambique, respectively, tbe defense ministries are now attempting to diversify weapons procurement and to use Indian inuructots for Soviet equiprneat in an attempt to reduce the Soviet role
The Soviets appear to be targeting aboutey develop"nj countries in particular. They have provided (he largest number of academicio seven LDCs. which together account for nearly half of the LDC students In the USSR; these countries arc Afghanistan, Jordan, Ethiopia, Madagascar. North Yemen, Colombia, and Syria. Moscow's in-country military (raining personnel are heavily concentrated in Syria, Libya, Ethiopia, Afghanistan, Angola, and the Yemcns. Madagascar, Mali, and Congo, none of which had Soviet militory advisersears ago. appear to be emerging targets fot the military' program. Inielligence training appears to be focused on Syria, Norih Yemen, Congo, and Nicaragua
Training LDC Personnel: Moscow's Investment In Political Penetration
Training programs for LDC personnel providean opportunity to penetrate key Thiid Worlduchis evidently not ad-ministeredperformed in three scpsiatc programs aimed at academic students pursuingin the professions, military personnel obtaining weapons training or preparing for command, and civilian technicians attempting to acquire enhanced (kills. Soviet-trained LDC personnel take positions In their countries' governments, military establishments, intelligence services, media, universities, and trade unions.DC students have been graduated from Soviet academic training programs alone. These graduatesetwork with atraining experience and in some instances have permeated the elite and power structuics of their court tries. Some individuals have chosen career paths lhat provide Moscow access to lhc levers of power in those countries. Moreover, Moscow's military training programs place significant numbers of Sovietin target LDCs
The Academic Program
Soviet academic (raining for LDC nationalsin producing engineers, medical doctors,lawyers, and other professionals suited for (he demands of LDC development, according lo open sources. The course of study is foureven years,ear or more of Russian languageand includes Marxism-Leninismtondard part of the curriculum. Moscow alsopccial-iied secondary education for LDC students atand technical schools, summer school courses, and through on-lhe-job training in Soviet factories ard plants. The; secondary educationhree- to four-year program.
LDC students may attend most Soviet institutions of higher education, but they tend to concentrate at the schools with facilities (or language training The
* (ori were prnnileC
*tte?lirrnCe.
largest concentration is at the Patrice Lumumba University In Moscow, which is dedicated exclusively to students Irom developing countries llteady flow of LDC students, including some who have not completed their secondary education or -ho hate noi been preselected ibiough bilateralexchange agreements. Although the curriculum is specially designedrally and acatcJcmicaUy for LDC uudrr.u. the dropout rate for some entering elaisca has been as high itercent, according to open sources Many LDC students also attend the state universities of Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, and Tashkent ot well as engineering institutes in Moscow and IcmiiRiad
Moscow completely subsidizes the academic program Free tuition, medical care, living expenses, and round trip airfare atlract LDC students, mosi of whom' cannotestern education The Sovieu award schoUrsfa-ps directly (hi Oct* theirDC capitals, cultural eenten, friendship societies, and official ctchangc agreements administered by indigenous ministries of education, universities, or the local Communist parties. Soviet iniernationul front organi/ations, such as ihe World Federation o( Trade Unions (WI-TU) and the International Unionlso award scholarships io Hade unionists
and undents. rei<*xt.vcty. According; to (be Occfao-sab-sk. i.S scholarships ate <ape:led to guarantee that aftertheir) will becorne7 weHI-walifitd
bad aho prutsagalGrsS doctrine,caredupport Sonet fx.,oaide raag* of political nam,'
Tbe Soviet academic program is not comparableuabty Wtaiem education, bttt tbe education reededractical one. often equippingfor promising careen in Iheir own countries. Indeed, graduates acquire the basic professional and technical skills lhat often enable them to qualify for relatively elite positions. Many LDC students go to tbe USSR to be educatedreference for training in the Wesi simply because theyetter alternative. *
The Sovieu cull the LDC student population.residing in Ihe USSR for potential pin-Soviet leadenJT
students in each uiuverssiy or institute into ftovisional li ty Cocnmiilecs (PUCsl PLC leaders leade pre-Sovkt students. The Soviet* fthemnkfc. and money to use in ptosdytiriisg new arrmls Each PUCoviet adtiser -ho tsGB officer, la acrditioo. the LDC student leader of each PUC reporu regularlyoviet official in Ibe local municipality who. in0 advice and money for PUC activities
To ensure that LDC students retain Soviettheir return home, Moscow recently hai begun extending invitations toselecied graduates to vi-it (he USSR for conferences in (heir specialty fields.l expenses paidC
aciivitiea such as "returneeook clubs. JTid photography clubs also keep the Soviei connection alive
Piograui EipaarUea
1 he number of LDC students enrolled inhas more than tripled ia the last 10
lhat Moscow has steadily increased tte total number ol Khalarihips awarded0* he Soviei. no. pro^de academic scholarships toDCs,ore thanean ago
Tbe number of Jordanian Palestinians studying in the-USSR eports indicate that mott Jordanian Palestinian students in tbe USSR are studying medicine,or agrcfiomy.
Tbe number of Ethiopian students in tbe USSR increased dramatically after the Mengistu coupany of those participating in (be Soviet academic program have not yet returned, given the four- to seven-year Soviet curriculum.
The Syrian Government allows the Soviet Embassy to offer scholarships directly lo students. The USSR-Syrian Friendship Society. Ba'th Party, and labor unions also offer scholarships. l_
ZJ. atndergraduates andraduate students departed for the USSR inchool year, raising the total to, more than double tbe numberears ago.
In Madagascar the Soviets, bringing the total number of students ia the USSR. Aboutludcnu returned to Madagascar0 percent of whom had been trained as engineers aodThe remainingercent areteachers,nd psychologists.
Figures published by the North Yemen Ministry of Education indicateemeni students went to the USSRncreasing the total number studying there.
olombian students currently study in tbe USSR, including trade unionists who.C
ix. of trade union tactics and Marxist-Leninist ideology
I1
USSR: Tr.lr.lojX'a
Mmcow Im uin academic tcbotarthipi to nurture
road group of countries in iKc Caribbean. Ccnlitl America, lhc Mediterranean, and Wetl Africa. Tbe numbers arc not as large as foe Ihe larger recipient! but nevertheless imprctsire for small countries. These include Nicaragua. Cypeui, theRepublic, Mali. Tuniiia, and Panama:
number of Nicaraguan students in the USSR haa increasedO9 prior to tho Sandi-aiiu revolutionhe Soviets workhe Nicaiaiuan Council of Higherto award uho'trihipi. In2 Mot-cow and Managua agreed to locognltc each other's educational degteesC
CL
Cyptuttudents In the USSR forJ/B3 school year. Soviet Kbotanbirn goto lower income faa as rewards for loyal tervice to the local Communist party, according to
In the Dominican Republic, tbe number of Sciet scbolarsbips is increasing because of opponuniiies ctcaied by changei in Dominican domestic politics.1 Moscow dispensed academic aeholar-ihips solely through the Dominican Communist Party. Since tben scholarships have also beenby Juan Botch's new Dominican Liberation Party.ominican ttudcnti departed for lhc USSR
The Soviet Ambassador to Mob has commented
publicly that SOO Matian aludenti arc in Ihe USSK
nd Ibal tome may tlay aa long at nine yean.
ibal 'SOwetc in lhc USSRf
were on official acholarahipa provided by Ihe Soviei Minitlry ot Higher Bdocalton la it* TunUian
counterpart. Moscow bat altoonoffl-cial scholarship) directly to Tunisian students
Sovieu alto have anachularthip program
in Panama lor iccoodaiy education in the USSR.
They dupense the tcholaribipa ibroogh lhc Human Kciourcci Imtiiule. ibe local Communiit pa'ty. 'he
Irflitl tiudcnl fcdcialtOn. and the Ic'titt labor union Pnnamftniartt learn clceteical ami chemicalroadhing, agriculture, and uie of water resounici.
Th* Miliiary TraiauiK I'rogtam
The scope of miliiary training for LDCin-country and In tlx USSR, closely parallelsand wphujicaiktn of armi deliveries.of advanced cxxnbal aircrafl andamong newer,catbanced Ibe oppottur.iticj foetechnical instruction Forissile capetUanzania for tbc0 provide bst.c. practical
aeon after Dir es Salaam
torneo to tec USSR for SAO and SA-7aad other weapon* Similarly, ihc mainof Soviei pilot Instructor- In Syria wasupgrade the capabilities of experiencedto fly newly delivered MTfi-JJ aircrafl.according (0
losses in2 Lebanon wai led Syria to enlist Soviet help in traioine newly recruited pilots.
Despite increased training- in LDCs. ihe widest variety of military instruction mil is green in tbc USSR. Moscow pcoricci technical training at military and higher military schools, watch offer both theoretical and practical training for LDC officers, at academics, which typically give advanced training; and at special institutes, which provide brief courses on specific subjects such as weapons firing, according to
j and open sources. Short technicalin maintenance and repair aie given aifacilities suchUse Zhitomiraccording to
Training for pilots and for sonte weapons technicians is lengthy, largely because of ihe difficulty of the subject- Syrian officeri enrolled to become SCUD rocket technicians, for example, have remained in tbe USSR for four yean, C
3 EthwptanilotUady for two yea is
Tactical and certain operational andby conirasi. are noi in complex. CoursesYemeni radar oik minis and pilotstraining, for cuttrtple, have been of
C tlcmaitd for Soviei intelligence and security experts has been encouraged by Moscow. The Soviets now provide- security and intcljtfciKc training and aunt nice to several LDCs to assist them in pre*ding then "revolntioaary gains."f^
oorses in torveillancc ana inieliigence craiicctaoa oeibods are given both in the USSR and in LDCs, principally iotem and North African students. Soviet experts have been sept io LDCs as politically diverse as Congo. Syria, and Nicaragua:
To provide instruction in-country as in Congo where five Sovieu were assigned in) to Ihe State Security School in Brauuville,
To advise oa intelligence collection, at in Syria
To keep other foreigners under surveillance in an
ldc
Program Ii.
The miliiary technical services programDCsrapidly since the. Wethai2 a
0 Soviets were in LDCs, up2his program hat expanded beyond iu historic Middle Eastern and Noah African cheats to crtcornpaufrican and Latin Arneri-can clientsoscow military technical services ia JOet gain oflientsn seven key countries where ihe Sovietsilitary pretenceeats ago, ihe number of Soviet miliuity personnel has increased bytotal ofercent (table 2)
LDC military personnel fromountries andgroupr[l
rainees departed fot the Soviet Union in
I
r
TaMe2
USSR: Military aad Qioast-Mfliury Personnel iu Selected LDCs
1ST)
rincipally from tbe Middle Eait and North Africa, compared toecadeliogetb-
csDC military personnel were rrxciting training in tbe USSRllghlly lest than the number of such personnel In the NATO countries.
(SHF)
i
Large numbers of Soviet military lecemeum arc posted to Syria, Etlitopia. Angola. Meraarobtqtie. and Algeria:
*oviet military personnel arc in Syria. Moscow benefit* from the collection of intelligence both on the Syrian military and on Israel's US-made military equipment, tbc insert ton of the USSRolitical factor in the Middle Fast, and the firsthand acquisition of information in tin area of potential Soviet miliiary wletventtonL-
'bebwi tbrar ana Mdw neve* rat LDC anbury ptetooad
In tbe trsSB
The number of Soviet technicians in Ethiopia con-linues to nd now. Moscow and Addis Ababa haveeries of contracts sior Soviet technical services
JJalso indicate lhal Soviet instructors teach armor. irtiDery. and mechanized infantry ladies and assist In Ibe planning of miliiary operations on both the Eritrean and Somali fronts.
Figure S
Geographic Distribution of Soviet Militanr and Quasl-Mllliary Personnel In22
Parceal
HSJr iIJCOPciiwcl
Middle
South Aala-*
latio AOKtiCB-O
nonh Africa-10
badilitary lecholciana in AngolaAngolan officers areour-year course in the USSR io raililary sciencetep toward promotion to general officer rank,
' Althoughttempting to diversify its
sources of military eqmproent and
believes that the level of Semct
technicians remained coostani Ibe last two years.
Maputo has Soviet adviicrs sis.gr.ed to brigade cenruoatvden and political cotamissars aad leebnical spocialists assigned to Ibe chiefs of logistics,health, engineering, and communication! Technical specialists also serve within the ua! infantry, commando, tank, and sir defense battel-
The USSR remains Algeria's primary miliiaryaad atoviet military techaicians arc in Algeria. However. Moscow no longeronopoly on military instructing in Algeria, since Algiers has diversified its military procurement to include Western equipment
Moscow
probablyevertheless, that Algiers will rnove leftward in the near future. The Soviet training presence limits Weatcro influence aod earns hard ewTeacy
Insurgent and irredentist groups, csrectally Utoac based In Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle Last, have beooene increasingly important as sources of roiliury trainees ia the USSR. Wc estimate {
-3
that nearly '<] World trainees tent to Ibe USSRere nongovernmentinly Palestinians and Zimbabweanwho recti ml cooTulional mutiny training. Moscow has provided gucirilla training id the USSR to South African insurgent!
also reports taut oovset iraunrcaoiaSouth African tcaut-gents in basicactics and other subject* ia
Congo, Madagascar, and Mali*ippear to be emerging targets for Moscow in the military program. None of these three had in-country Soviet military Instructorsears ago:
la Congo, Moscow primarily provides militaryto Coogolese Army. Navy, air, andA greet number of Ccogokse arc receJriBg military training in the USSR. I
his ind odes politicalIn "Mi rust philosophy" andin the Sovietlong witha range of military subjects such asvehicles, topography, and military '
The Soviet military presence in MadagascarSoviet instruc-
tors in Madagascar are working villi all branches of the Army, including artillery, armor, aad military schools. Antananarivo pays their expense* for food, housing, and Irani reflation. Soviet aviationand support personnel also are present in Madagascar.
Masco- is the lending supplier of equipmeni tomilitary andoviet militaryin MaliForce commander argues that tbe Soviet*only Urge-Kale source of granr mililaryMalian pilots am"In the USSR
Ci.Iilan technician Program
The civilian technicianprovides training; for LDC economic technicians in Ihe USSR in doeiopment-relatedtbe soulkjl of Moscow's ihree training programs The number of civilian technician trainees doubled2i but dccBDcd marginally2. Forty-one percent arc from South Asia, principallyand India.ercent from the Middle East;eaxeast from Sub-Saharan Africa; aoderceni from North Africa. Arabs are trained on Soviet Tubing vesseli. and Mongolian souths arc la Soviet technical schools to learn construction, dyeing, and wood working. Presumably some Greoadians wiQtechnical training in Ihe USSR under the terms ofillion economic aid agreement signed2
A Program Assessment
In view of the increasing emphasis given theseprograms, Moscow almosl certainly considersuccess. The Sovieu have been able to acquire access to the government, the military, andgroups ineveloping countries through (he bilateral working relaiionships they create and through fcflowup efforts with program alumni.can exploit the access to develop additional officii! aad unofficial ties Moreover, the programs generate long-termfor political penctra-tioa al lowo Mooeow and earn hard cuneascy from in-country military instruction
Tbe Soviet academic program has not yet graduated ao LDC president or prime minister, bul the USSR can number among Usemberuling revolutionary directorate, foul LDC cabinetthree ambassadors, and ihiee subcabiiKibese individuali and otheis are making
!
In Cyprus,
Sovie(-educa(ed returnees arc scattered inpositions throughout the community,in the media. Of tbeommunists in (be Cypriot House of Kepraert.iii m. seven arc Soviet alumni.
Jordan is also sensitive to the number ofreturneesQuipsof the Jordanian medical attoaationconducted in Russian.
anticipate* (hat, through sbeer
force of numbers. Soviet-Irained civilians willgain positions of influence in North Yemen.
The militaiy training program probably has had the greatest impact among heavily dependent clients, eitheresultong-term relationship, as wiih Syria, orayoffapid Soviet initiativerisii situation. Ethiopia being* case in point Someuch as India thai have (be financial means and independence, can limit Soviet influence byarms suppliers and associated training
In addition, the Soviets have benefited from ibe hard currency earnings generated by their military (raining programs in LDCs. Since (he. Moscow has required payment in hard currency for Soviet services from financially well-off clients rather (ban providing grant aid. We estimate C
JJtbat receipts
Irom these dicnts, principally oil-rich slates in tbe Middle East aod North Africa, totaled0 million, more than double (he revenues of tbe previous five years. About tbrce-fcnirths of these receipts probably were payments for Sovietof various mililary-related functions in LDCs, since Moscow absorbs most of tbe costs of (raining in
Soviei Hashing program* have not been successful at all times, however. Some LDC students havebitterly aboul their experiences in tbe Soviet Union. Heavy handed KGB aurveillancc, travelpoor housing conditions, racialand the cold Russian winters arc objecis of scorn,
c
1 academic
performance. Furthermore, some students come away from the USSR unconvinced thai Marxism-Leninismiable doctrine. These stndenls may discourage some potential candidates from participating in the program
The military (raining program has also provoked some criticism from LDC dicnts when Sennet at(entpts io gain influence and deliberately "undertrain" areEarly (his year Iraq considered replacing Soviet
Keti'.r
atlrucioci with EgyptiansIhc Soviet* refmod lo divulge exact performance characteristic* erf lie aircraft, d
Ji Ethiopian Ait Force technicians studying in Ihe USSR (who had previous US trainingtandard of comparison) have faulted poor substantive presenutioas, prosclyilzinj efforts,ondescend-ing attitude by instructors,*
At lis worst, Soviet insensitivilyart in provoking Egypt'sof the entire Soviet military contingent intbc added opportunities intelligenceprovide for Soviet penetration havesome of Moscow's dependents to attempt loon this type of' "
Outlook
we expect the progmmt to continue lo grow In the near term. The Sovicu are realiiing gains from these programs and presumably consider the risks of disillu-sionment or of expulsion to be manageable. Many of the target LDCs, whose leaders benefit from these programs, arco continue to lake advantage of the Soviet training offers. This is all tbe more likely to be the case asieaiing number cf graduates return to take pcttitioat erf relative power andio ibeir home countrica. As opportuoitiet permit, the Soviets will cootiattr to expand the military training program The rnililsry trainingnicfc and highly visible mcauu for Moscow to dcoaoa-sUate tuppcat for aa LDC regime Moreover. Moscow often benefits firuncialiy from these programs or from Ihe associated weapons sales by earning hardWe expect, based on the pattern of the Last few years in Central America and the Caribbean, that these regions willocus of further growih in iheprograms, although Moscow's other high priority targets will continue to receiveiding assistance
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