GOALS ARD ATTAEM2OTSJ
CIA HISTORICAL REVIEW PROGRAMBEEASE IN?
2
Bote
Tho data and conclusions eontaiaed in thin rejcrt do not noeosoarily represtat tbo finalnd should be regarded na provisional only and subject to revision. Additional data or concents which say be available to the user ore roll cithis report ccotalna lnforaatlan GvaHablea
ZLW3ElCE AGEHJX Office of search and Report*
i.
Pup*}
I, General Goals and Cbjoetlves
II. General Measure* of Progress
Iov Prerevolutlonary
Bandloeps to Progren3* Bdnonttonal Finance
Bang* of Education
5- Conp&rleone vith the tJS..
IH- Graded
Goal*
Conree of
Teachers and Teaching
5*
and Drop-outs
of
and
6. Attainment of
IV. Special Types of EUenentary and Secondary
Eindergartene end Day Hursories
Military
Schools for Retarded Pupils
"Popular-1
V, Vocational Education .
.
The System
labor Roccrve Schools
s.
asd
,
Artaiinamt of
High
and
o, Teachers
d. Course of
Attainment of
TT. Higher
Types of
Dspertaaots
a. Enrollment and
of
Graduate
B. Attelrmant of
VII. PoUticul
Append, 1tjw
Appendix A-
Appendix B. Souroao end Evaluation of Soureee
nimrtrntlmw
mm
Figure 1. GrEsnlsatlon and Control
of Education in tbe
CIVHR PR-16
(ORB
S0AL3 AMD ATTUBCTTS OP*R
One of tho aa Jot goals of ths Cotsraolat roglae In tha USSR has banc to dsralop educational fsellltiss and nes then to pronato totalitarian plans. Theobjectives >diich pomes te all types sad levels of Sovietar* reliable political Indoctrination and practical rooational training,nd* ar* eerredigh degree of central oontrol of educational policy ono subject aetter.
Tberewss no public education in Csarist Russia, end private and fihurch schools reachedai tartsgnunf, of tb* population. In spite of thene aeager beginnings, disruptions by war endn expordlng schoolsnd low national Income, substantial progress In attaining CouKunist goal* has been sad* In the pastears.
Tbs Objectives of tbs greded-'school* ln the USSR are each tho ssmu a* ln the OS; with addedn Indoctrination end proinduotrlel training. As long as education was compulsory only through the fourth grade, tho great aajorlty of children did not progress beyond that point, Kt preotnt thererive to schievf. universal compulsory seveo-grad* education, Ite apparent success esiil expand tbe potential Intake of secondary school*,high schools, and, eventually, college*. The euro lis-sit ln rogular high schoolstill small, and onlyercent of tbe total enrollaent In ths firstrades is In tbs graduating class. About ths sans ntnbcr, however, are graduated fron vocational highnd son* attend secondary night The course of study Is aore condensed than The largest proportion of tbe tineevoted to those subject* where factual material snd political indoctrination can be combined. Almost as muchia given to subjects vhlch lay tha foundation for vocational training. Aboutercent Is allotted to gomes and oporto,trong premllStory sepbasls. In' spite of the developaeot of elaborate, th* supply of trained teachers bs* not kept pace vith tbe expansion of schools. Additional handicaps are ths excessive retardation of pupils end shortages Inquipment, end textbooks. In smeary, the graded schools ara rapidly approaching the goal ofoar compulsory attendance) high aohool enrollment is still small; snd substantial progresseing aade In tbe elimination of tbe shortage of teachoro.
labor reserve schools are organised to train worker* for tbe middle ranks of industry. Coanletion of th* fourth grade is required for entry Although there' Is some voluntary enrollment, ecapulsion Is often resorted to. Oraduatee mustears at en assigned job. The systemesne of shnnnellng
e-
th into indnstry and filling;ireeiantfl Inrea* aad un-flefllrahln job*. eta-ollaaart*illion8 bet bar* subsequently declined to laaa than half that noaber. It la Dot clear whether thia nhrlnkagc renraaaotaarnonsct trand away froa thia typ* of train!naeaoxsvy failure to fulfill plana. Oyer to*ears tba laborrebar*illion soniskilled workers to th* legBcnta of Indnstry wherear* aoet oritloslly needed.
Vocational high aohoole (tecfanieuns) accept pupils who bevs ccaplertad tho avnajath grade and train then as specislista. They ar*igh acboolwith special training for on*ide variety of oconpatlona. Technicoa scroll want has steadily increasedevel ofillion, vith as aaoaal fradoatlca of. Tha ralatlT* freedom of thaa* Inatlttt" tlona froa public oriticdoa lndloatoB that they are performing their function satisfactorily.
Hlgbsr education la offered Inniversities andpecialised Institutes.
l deoartoonts ar* included in th* unlvaraltiss, but Institutes for the aost part train for one narrow specialty. Rasldsnt atndenta herecreasedercent Inre Tbaro ar*studenta, with annual graduations at the rataegular0 oorrespondano* degreea. At proDent nearly half tic graduates ara drained for teaching, aboutercent for engineering, snd th* balance for miscellaneous profeaslona. Onlyercent ofroos In th* OSSB are ftradnat* dsgreca as compared withercent in tb* OS. Graduate work ln science Is Integrated with th* program of th* Acadeay ofhich aalntaln* eon* excellentut ooncantratea on applied research.
Quantitatively, Institutions of higher education in tha OSST. havetba goal of training expert personnel as rapidly aa Industry expanded, leaving soae leeway for laprored staffing. Qialltatively, Soviet graduates ar* hampered by tha narrow rcng* ofots taught ln tba specialised Institutes, the rlfld ccsnartawntallsatlan of reeearob, snd tha fact tbatnail proportion of thea bars postgraduate training. Tha high ccoaeotratlcn of tbs sconcny ofR on tb* critical product* of ocajparatlraly simple designs, however, aaJta lt posalbl* to oparat* industry successfully with fewer engineersarrower range of skills. If jodgajant a* to th* training of engineer* Is based upon the workman ship In the products which they subsequently turn out, it Is to bethat sclontlfio and technical aanpowar, at least ln tbo critical Industries, is of sufficient -volume and quality to prodnoe th* good* which or* considered easantlal for tbe oparatlon of tba 5oviat souaony at prassat level*.
Politloal training for tb* officials of tba Party and gcTornoant at all levels la oarrled onpeclol systsa of
1 Major concern of tha Coaamist reglae In ths USSR haa been Impressment la tha level of education, vid* extension of facilities, and adaptation of nohool* to totalitarian objectives. Tho Constitution stales those objectives aa
The cltisane of the USSRight to education. Thia right is assured by compulsory elemsutaryby free tuition,ystem of scholarships granted to ths overwhelming majority of unlTarsity students, by education In ths mother tongue, by tho organization of free vocational education In the factories,ara ted farms, and tractor stations and collective/
ractical matter, soma of thesessurances" hove not completely materialised. Until recently, education van rot compulsory beyond th* fourth grade. Tuition Is not free beyond the acvetth croon, and higher education scholarships are limited to tha most outstanding stud stile
Shut off aa they are from outside contacts and Ideas, tbo presentof Russian* la especially depend unt upon the schools to shape its character and thought. Cosrnunlot load ore have been prompt to realize th* power of controlled education to capture ths minds of youth and alert to grasp thia opportunity. From Marx on, dialecticians have emphasir-od tho Importance of education, and Lenin advocated thst the school shouldeapon of the proletarian dictatorship. 7j
Th* principal Soviet objectives In education ara twofold. First So tb* indoctrinationocile populationwhich Is frequently referred to ln the tortn oommunist aortilitv." Itubdivided Into (l) lor* of th* Motherland and glorification of lt* inedcrs, with It* corollary of hatred for the "ixperlallot"rossnian, whloh when ersained closely becomes cooperation with other peoples who follow thaUna and bane* la not oonsldarad Inconsistent with hatred ofcen-adeohip, vhlch ln practice neon* adaptation to the collective life) U) order and discipline In both industry and liferourage and strength In ths support of Ccenmmlat causes, y The second objective Is the training of aa expanding labor fores possessing all skill* necessary to opersto th* eoonomy end the omed forces. The drive for Industrialisation end the recent unwillingness to use foreign exports, except whoa necessary, have nsde the need for vocational education acute. Next to political Indoctrination, vocational training Is the doalnant determinant of educational practice. This objective results not only In the development of various types ofschools but also in emphasis an technical materials in all types of schools. Even In the gradedr the effort inpert
mm
mV iljajfj Ttfr*
rnra/ledfa necessary to tb* nairtery of tb* enriroaaent end tb* urvieriftand-Ing of th* basic principles of industry, la pervasive.
tu> objectives parnaeto tho whole Sorietoyatea from tan to graduate school. They ere th* criteria by whichtbooae and course outlines Is judged and the relative weights J* ama^got Better courses are detaxniaed. Tbey aro th* yardstiokasifllns, lesthods sad efficiency of teachers. The success or failure of adboatlosml effort in tha USER from the Soriet point of view is to be Judged inf suooass In Booting theee objectives rather than by standards which woold be applied to adnoatlonenocraoy.
to thee* goals is enforced by highly eeotrtllaed control of adooatlooal policy and subject amttar. ill education ie Eovarnoant-corrtrolled. Although tb* operation of educational facilities Is decentralised to th* republic* and industrial sdnlotries, policy and content ere detcrclued byof sinister* and are supervised by tho Party organs at all levels.
i. aoyamrT ItTrl.
Crarist Russialliterate. There was no public School buildings ver* few and war* largely concoctrotod in eitlaa, ia lat*nly about two-thirds of th* inhabitants of the Central Industrial region could read and illiteracy was higher onong tbe non-Russianercent and ahov* ln UsbekLstan snd Tadzhlklstsn. /J Classical courses predominated. Thar* were not many nor*eachers in th* whole country, snd aany of there war* politically Equipment van lacking, and books war* Inadequate.
Daring th*, when th* school system vas being expended, th* school populationoears of age) increased byillion,rercent, and at the same time the govsrnrnrrt conducted an Intensive canpelgn against adult illiteracy, enrolling mmionw of adults in special classes. Progress which va* beginning to be Barked0 waa interrupted by tho war, and. In occupied areas, extenslTs replacement of war casnlatlso and reoonatvera necassary.
Th* present population of ochool age of tho USSR Isercent larger than that of the US, but Soviet resource* to support education aro only about on*-fonrth those of tb* US. 6/
The total *docationel budget of too USSR1 was announced axillion rablaa. Sorlot propaganda constantly ccnmant* on thia largo aaoantigher percentage of the national Incauo than la used for these linnmf.es la tha caa Only shootercent of this total, however. Is spent for ilpSTat Vm snd coastractloa ofhe only Itaas included asaxpenditnre In US statistics). The otherercent Is for printing of books, support of propaganda organizationa, end subsidies for art, radio, aad drama, items that ara excluded from educational statistics ln the ID, Oa this basis the USSR spends an rquivr.W. of4 toMilieu for construction and operation of schools as compared with en expenditure8 billion in tbe US." This ie an expendituresruent of ths gross national product of tbe USSR as comparedsrnant la tbe US,lightly greater financial effort for tbe USSR touch smeller total expenditure.
With th* smaller Income and larger school population, tha USSR expenditure per pupil enrolled5 per year as compared with tXD In th* US. If th* USSR succeed* In securing the enrollment of sof It* educable population comparable to tbe US, it will be at tba expense of lover outlay per pupil unless Soviet financial effort is greatly Increased.
jnfa of ftjupatlon.
Soviet uropsganda often contrasts totaj expenditure in tbe USSR, whloh is all Included In the national budget, withexpenditure ln tbe US, which excludes overercent of th* educational outlay carried by state and local budget* and private organisations.
S expenditure* from tha US Offioe of Education! for Items la tbe USSR budget,otal ofillion ruble* was announced for Sovietexpenditures/ Tbe percentage for operation and const met ion was estlsmted on basis of the RSFSR budget, Tbe dollar value of thu ruble varies with tha type of expenditure. Th* rateubles per dollar may be approximate ln tba ease of militaryhlch ar* not subject to the turnover tax aad enjoy favored price policies. The rate ofuble* per dollar bas been setlasted with respect to the purchases of the general public, who bear the turnover tax. lb oetlmatlng tbe gross nationalonge ofoabies per dollar was used. Accordingly, educational expendl-turee war* converted at tbe asm* ratio. A* long as the seme ratio for Income and expenditures is used, tha relationship reasln" constant no matter whichrate is used. Cheng* In tbe ratio of rubles to dollars would, however, vary ths relationship In tha per-pupil expenditure In ths two countries.
Sorlot educationariety of objectives, and it bas boon necessary toariety of types of schools to moot tbom, 1
tMTlnBTP matt
Under these circumstance* lt Is not ixsmrksble thst tha pressing educational ambitions of ths Soviets have been only partially fulfilled, if, however, their success Is not judged entirely by the present level, but la seas si ed as progress froa an art rarely lav prererolutionary beginning, tlvs anUaVeaeKte are aore Impressive,
Beam of the indicators of this progress are tho expsnding ofll aaa Ila grade schools froall lion5 million;illion Is special vocational schools andillion in univer-titles (aaa Table.xpanding the teaching force from)ystem of kindergartens and day nurseries; promptingtraining In factories and widespread adult education; bousing thla large esteblishnant; andomplete set of textbooks guaranteed to follow the orthodox party line. An expansion of thia scope carried outelatively abort period naturally bas hempered tbe quality ef the educational offering. Thia qualitative eapact of the program la mast difficult to measure, alnoe direct evidence ie lacking, but it la tbe most important field for future analysis.
If Soviet educatora can in the next.ears duplicate tbo progress of thehe USSR will attain Western European levels In equipment and enrollment.
The extent to which this progress has brought education in the USSR up to US levels can be only generally appraised because of lack of comparable statistics and abasnce of Qualitative studies. The following estimated rela-tionshlpa, however, vith respectuaber of Indices, give some approximate ooniperiaons of present levela* i
See Table, 7.
Ftfueetlonal fcidices, US and -
rnmWt
of School Age (Thousands) a/
and Senondtrj Pupils per
f Scfaool AgS r; :
93
and Secondary Pupils per Teacher
School Studentslementary and Secondary Pupilc b/
School GraduatesLansntary and Secxnidary Papllo
Education Enrollment (Thousands)
and First Professional Degrees (Thousands) c/
Vocational Enrollment (Thousands) d/
for Operation andof Schools as Percentage of Public Expenditure p/
Tears of ago, see Table.elow. ,
excludes BUatzwr and correspondence courses, USSRillion regular andmillion vocational secondaryraduates from each type of institution.
figure estimated by tb* US Office of Education on the basis tbatgraduates0igh percentage of veterane and thatere eliminated, graduations will beer year. . Both figures exclude correspondence and postgrcdunte degrees,
figure from the US Office of* for1
rivate expenditures ara Included in tho US total budget and outlay* public expenditures Include Federal, state, and local; for USSR expenditurefl,
OwtlUtlraly the goal of tha graded aehool system in tha USSR isaids saaspnlsorj sersn-grade education (noraally up to li rears of aaa) and avmsmslon of high school enrollment as rep Idly as Uie recplremcnts far yoath labor will permit. In substance, the goal Is to lay the foundation for prtlltinal indoctrination end vocational aptitude and to develop tha aeadewin snotflartge baslo to entrance into employieaot, to further training, in vooational high school, or to entranceniversity,
of population of school age and enrollment by grade In tho Table 2
Distribution in Soviet0
Tboqaands
population estimatedear age distribution eetiiated by CIA.
Soviet arawuniiuaiiilsrade sohool enrollment5 million. Thia was distributed by gradee by calculating thsbirths In the appropriate yeere, allowing acne late ernrollnant in thaat agollowing furtherperosnt retardation iaoresulted in an aatiaat* ofill loo ln gradeso 4- Thamillion ware divided betweenoy osmaalcglnn previous years have been substantiallytha drive to make these grades ecapulaory. Tba resulting eat lastscccLfiraed by the few acattared actual distributions which wareby suoh evidence as tho members taking exsmlnationc at various levele. VDoatlonal and higher enrollments,, en announcement thatfollowing Increases1 over0 figures oBillion} secondaryigher,
WBMeBit
lluon joutha between the age*nd
r aboutercent of tbo total population of tba oss.
(thoto tb. 2fSJTTwf^T boutaroant vera la school, or aoout taa aaaa proportion as in the us. tbo factillion aore ara enrolled inhan oro in tbo appropriate ages is accounted for by recordation. there ere still pupils in the rural schools
it la eatwed that froao
aroant of tha elementary children fall to be pronoted each year.
percent are enrolled
olther in tbalr normal grade or as retarded pupils in the prlnary grades.
* in
the us, wartime disruption caused exceptional retardation in thia group.
of the youthoears of age (appropriate to tho three meh school gradesj aboutercent are enrolled in regular high schools, about^percent in their nonual grade, endercent retarded. er-cent are in secondary vocational schoolsmaller percentage in labor reserve schools. this total of aboutercent is to be compared withercent of the youth of high school age enrolled ln the US. it is atr upon oompletion of grsnmer schoolarge proportion of tbe pupils drop out to enter industry or to enroll in vocational high schools or in labor reserve schools (see 5a, below).
the transition from oompolsoiy four-gmdo to ooapulBory seven-erode education is still in process. effort has been made to enforce compulsory aevan-grade attendance in citiesumber of years. the fifth grade was compulsoryhe sixthnd tho seventh although the plane have been only partiallyarge nuaber of seven-grade schools have been opened, end fifth and sixth grades have been added to soneflobools. this has resultedecent marked increase ofinhich,ear or two, should result in further expansion torovided th* pressure for labor force expansion doe* not interfere. after three aore years this should resultaricod nrpanslon in numbers eligible for university
Ttv*Tmi9subjectsore condensed in the
appropriate age la tba age athild wouldrade if it entered school atnd woro promoted every year.
ussr than in tbe us. whereasears are normally required from first grade to high school graduation ln the us, high school graduation
In th* tBSB requires tb* completion of onlyrades. Graden being added to fOM of tb* larger school*. Thu* tbe hours required for completion Of high aabool In moat of tb* USUI areercent of the tine allotted Inof the OS,
Tha fall emrrtcnlun of thorodes In tbo largest republic in tbetha RSTSRIs sboun in Tshle 3.
Tabla 3
Tha Curriculum of tb* Soviet Graded Schools
A aaooad omlselon Is the leek of allotment of tine for specificIn Marxist theory. It has oeemlngly been doterninod thst young pupils Bsry bs safficiantly expoaad to the practical espscts of each theory through the constant aapbasls In all classes upon the "code of Communisty which process they grov to be practical Cojsnsileta without direct Indoctrination in theory, whioh is postponed until they are sore aature. (Seabove
A thirdoxlsslon Is ths lack of soy tine specifically set aside for trade training. This la likewise postponed for specialization at later ages. In tbe early grades, industrial training is considered "polytechnic" in tba sense that It la designed to lay the foundationroad underitendijg of the whole Industrial process. To this end, auch of ths instruction In history, geography,nd science io directly concerned with agricultural and Industrial problems- After graderade training le available In special vocational high schools.
anamination of tbe courses which are Hated Inhows thst ebonlpercent of the schedule time is allotted to language, history, geography, civics, and art, where tbe primary emphasis is oo Indoctrinationv and that shootercent Is devoted to msthematice and science, where the mala objective is laying tha foundation for and eretending of the environ-ment and th* economy. Aboutercent of the time lo devoted to sports, genes, end activities designed to lay th* basis for military training, snd aboutercent Is devoted to foreign language
While this offering may vary slightly from school to school, within 1grede every student must take the earn* classes Ko electives are offered.
The USSR recognises teaching aa the most important qualitative factor in education. Teachers enjoy great prectigo and ere considered among tbeimportant architects of tbe new Cosmninlat society. They ore leaders in tb* local community snd often bold elective positions inand In tb* party. Th* salary scales of teachers srs compsrable to those of skill ari workers. In addition, teachers have th* coveted privileges of tho intrlligcot-sia, Inoluding housing subsidies *nd tb* right to reductions in prices atstore*
Teacher trainingt xaree level*. Tbe standard requirement la that teacher* for tha four primary grades be treined in tccbnleuas, or special teaching schools (see VAa,hich require completion of tho flrat seven grade* for entry and th* completionear course for graduation. This level of train--lng is soaevbnt below that of "normal" schools or jurior teacher* colleges ln tbe OS. Teachers In tbe upper elementary cradco bsve theoretically coetpleted high school, or have graduatedeaching school andears1 experience
ohlng, beforeear couroe preparatory to teaching snveral raZnterl anbjeotfl. Thia level la equivalentegreeunior teaehero collage in High school teachers are trained for speclsllastion in on* subject, with knowledgeubsidiary field in educational Institutes. Thaa* also require high school graduation for entry endearll of those typei of schools have practice schoolsj/
Rapidhas nade lt Impossible tc ataff all school* with teachersraining was standard hence, vuch eaphasis ls placed upon on-the-job training. Evening courses, short courses, eorreepondenoe courses, and fornel teachers associations ar* all utilised for upgrading qualifications. While such on-the-job training laeads of schools are responsible for saalng that staffs continue training where necessary.
The prescribed teaching methods are formal and authoritarian- After an early Bolshevik period of radical experimentation and ccntnlete freedcm in education, allmethods were discarded in favor of tbe system of teacher-centered ins tract ion, with th* teaoher strictlybyauthorities.
Discipline la strongly stressed. The "rules for pupils" are detailed end have th* authority of law. Discipline by tho teacher is reenforced by the "collectiveB organisation of tlie class and the appointment of aonitors, Although oorporel punishment is forbidden, punlsbmeata up to expulsion from achool ere advocated. The objective of discipline la the trainingitisen to like to do what be has to do.
Promotions beyond the fourth grade ar* strictly controlled by examine-tions. re oentrally planned ae to topics to be covered, and the specific questions proposed by the teacher are reviewed by an examining board. These boards consist of the grade or class teacher, two other teachers, tbed(epresentative froa the regional or tho republic educational authority, yj
5. eaAVttfttfctM" '
a. artetfwaUqo
* This section ls based largely on compilations of complaintb in Soviet periodicals snd newspapers. For this reason, th* facts may be oouewbat biased by tbe Communist habit of "self-criticism.n For tbe most pert, however, tbo shortcomingsubstantial basis of reality.
Th* large numbers cf retarded pupils carried la the systematillion)rain on tbe educational resources anden excessive proportion of th* effort on the lover grades. It has been pointed out that aboutoercent of the pupils fail to be promoted each year Pressore is put on teachers to reduce this proportion, one device in scats areas being to diecredit teaobero who fall to promote overercent
of their classes. Tola,ver, nay lead to Indiacrlainnte promotion of poor adboler*. Baoicnlly, retardatioo Isymptom of lack of interest on the pert Of pupils or poor quality of the educational offering- Atemporary excess of retarded pupils because of war interruption of early schooling.
Associated vith retardation is elimination, or premtture dropping Oat of pupHs, retardation being one of the primary reasons for dropping out.han education up to ageas nodo generally compulsory, the point of beery el in 1nation was after gradehrough which compulsoryhas bean In force for aany years, Failure to eater tbo upper elosentary gredee was due only In part to retardation, Tbo other principal factor was leak of facUltiea for puplla Ino 7. any areas these upper grades ware taught only In widely scattered schools, necessitating boarding or transportationhich were not adequately provided. Also,upil was beaded for agriculture or Industry, rather than completion of formal high school education, tbe incentive for completing the upper elementary gradee was not so greet. After gradehen education is no longer com* pulsory and when tuition Is charged, thc sharpest drop in graded school en-rollaent now occurs, partially to enter employacnt and partially to enroll ln vocational bigfa schools (techniooms)v below) and labor reserve schools, which are open to pupils who have completed grade 7, The nets thatmall but Increasing proportion of tho so who enter the first grade survive through tbe tenth, An additional ember receive tbe equivalent of aeducation in special schools. The transition to univoroal seven-grade compulsory education Is resultingonsiderable increase in theattending end ccsnjletiag high school. igh school enrollment should be further expended by tbe Increase In births Inand theof the seventh grade by pupils whose elementary schooling was Interrupted by the war. .
b- Shortage, qf Tffflohsrg.
Tbe most important determinant of educational quality Is tbe teacher, Soviet schools hare never lud enough teachers to handle tbe rapid expansion of enrollment. Progress made up to World Var XI was partially nullified by war losses due both to deaths and to inability tc enter training Institutions. 9 the effort to expandas precipitated another shortage. Even with considerable expansion in tbe teacher-training facilities, stopgap measures have beau necessary. Correspondence courses bave increased. One year of teacher training has been added to soso high schools, and the better primary teachers ore promoted to teach In the upper grades. There is little doubt that much of ths excessive retardation and elimination of pupils is traceable to^the poor preparation of many teachers,
Tescber-treining hen now expended until tbe supply of trained teachers belowhould soon bo adequate,.
Hbnlaaale destruction of buildingo inm stated aroao andof soboal Trail dings to other purposes hove created an acute shortage of olaiarocm spaee. School* la tb* nore populous orees operate In two and three abffto, end one ahift sobools aro crerorevded. Tho construction of schools along with otbar wjotnoao trial oonatruotion ban bean delayod because of tbe priorities of indue try. ft?*ou*nt oonplainto In the local press alao indicate that some loanl suthoritiaa fail to provide the propor eoixlpnent for buildings and that be*ting- la often) cafieisnt In rural areas,
d. Safin-
Taartbooka aro produced centrally end distributed for sale in local store*. Tb* system is 0Asib*roona and scoati-ass results in long dolsys or in the delivary of inadequate BuppUes.
aBdaVtaanaa of StBael*
Gwrditatlvaly, it ia probable that tbe goal of universal sevens-grade cconmlaory education will be reachedew yeara, at whieh tiaa tbeof paplla in the age group appropriate to these grades willthe proportion of children of elementary school age enrolled ln tha DSC unless, however, tuition charges are removed above tho seventh grade and unless tbe preasuro for youth to enter industry or industrial training is relaxed, regolar high sobool errollnent will continue to lag, but enrollment inr vocattonel high schools,ay wall expand, oyal and reliable teaching force baa been recruited to the also ufasro tho number of pupils per teacher eessperes favorably with the ratio in tbo OS. Rapidbas, however, euorifloed quality to Quantity. Thia handicap could be over-ocaaaw years. Tha course of atony, although narrow fron the OS point of view, ia adapted to the goals of indoctrination and Instillation ef boclc material facts- Tb* principal remaining baadicope ore shortages cf buildings, equlpcjsnt, and supplies, and these cannot be rapidly trade up as long aa too needs of heavy industry are psremount.
flf Xlwmton pari syiwJfur finftpolfl* 1
1. HltfPiTa^grWWT fteTflffTlf'ri-
rraschool education la given ln JUralergartens of the etoadardillion 'planes In kindergartens" ore clslnad, it ia probable that the enrollment at any data doe* notillion. In addition,cars is given to children of working motbor* in day nurseries which ara adairlsterad by tb* Industrial eetobllahaonto.
U -
schools for the children of Aray officers Bod Nakhirarv school* for the children of Havy off loere pro*Adaand necondary education, withaUot-ent of tlaa to ailitary training. Thoo* schools requireaara for aoapletion and prepare for entrance to officers training schools, Tb* pupil* enrolled in these schools,are, however,aell fraction of the total, tba areed service* alsoyeten of schools for DoncomalsBioned Officers slailAT- to those In th* ITS.
as la ths OS system, ths larger city systems provide spools! classes for th* instruction of mentally retarded pupils and for pupils especially gifted in various lines.
4.
The formal education ayataa in parallel erfetwork of studyulturalnd night schools. Special emphasis is placed byIndustries and collective farms on facilities for pupilc woo hare dropped out of formal schools to complete their secondary education at night.tudents are supposed to be encouraged in every woy and to be oionpt from overtime work. In theCD pupils vere enrolled In auch night schools for rural youth and for working youth,
1- Gasla>
The objective of the trade-technical schoolshe training of politically conscious worker*ound knowledge ofhus th* objectives of discipline ond political indoctrination apparent in th* grade schools or* carried over into tho vocational system.
Ths success of th* aabltloue plans for rapid industrialization isarge degree dependent upon the discipline and productivity of laborad to be cultivatedopulation tbe majority of whoa bad no familiarity with modern industrial technique* and who were recruited froa fsrn* sad from tbe maturing inexperienced youth In cities. The finely graduated systaa of rewards and punishments designed to discipline labor aa* euabersosM to administer and not entirely successful Tb* school, therefore, waa expected to make Ita contribution by cultivating such discipline loyalty to tb* system, sad "proper attitude toward work" as to obviate th* need for excessive compclelon.
Soviet Industrial training operatesruster of leralaariety of types of vorkaroi
For th* aaa* of workers la ths lovsr cetegorlee, an elaborate aysteet of on-the-job training le provided, Entry la such training la not Had ted by aaynlr*nants.
Dpoa completion of the fourth grade, oandidatee for aoatewhat sore deatreble lob* any trainnaths' labor leesne factory training school.
ear labor reserve scmools* for tbe niddle ranks of send skilled labor aad for son* skilled Jobs.
Completion of the seventh greds entitles the candidate toocational high school (Uohnleun) (sss Via, below) to train for tha grade of specialist.
High school graduation open* the way for engineering or professional trainingniversity or an Institute.
Thus youth of any level of foraal schooling say find training facilities for entering industry st ths level for which be Is theoretically fitted, and,conversely, training Is provided forlevel of skill.
As long as tbs overwhelming aajority of pupils in ths DSai did not progress beyond the fourth grade; entry Into Industry wae largely throughJob training and labor res*lie schools. Suoceasful extension of oaapulsory eaven-grade education will, however, iaeasdietely sake it possible to expend th* enroUaent* In all type* of high schools andear* ahould peralt aore rapid expansion ln enrollments in higher education institutions.
a. Js9fla>
Tb* prlsary objective of tbe labor reserve school* Is to assuresufficient, supply of labor with aadlun skill. Thla Is scconpllshad by Hrlng tb* Ministry of labor Reearvee power to recruit, train, and allocate youth. Itystem for transferring manpower from farm to elty snd from areas of ample labor supply to shortage areas,
fRIPPfTliiii'T
m0 provided thatdults oa farms ohouldtwo youths xor tao xaoor reserve ana mat ui-nanuxu ot assigned quotas. Froaoercent have cane froand tho largeof the total has been youth vho had dropped out of graded schools or dad poorly in their regular academic work.
Three principal types of schools were provided r ear trade schools training Betel workers, alners, chemists, and petroleua snd corammear transportation schools for locoaotive engineers end fireman, repair aan, and other skilled railwayonth factory training schools for workers In construction snd boss industries and for higher skilled minors and petroleua workers, Tn addition to these main types, th* Ministry also operates soae teehnicutM (bee Via, below) and7-jeer schools loaning to engineering positions-
Th* ages for induction, as amendedre for tbo factory schools, boysond girlsnd forear aohools, boysond girls
Having been acceptedolunteer or drafted, the youth is assignedchool in an area of labor shortage to train for an Industry thatabor priority. While in training ho is fed, clothed, snd housed at gOTeWaasBt expense. onth schools offer little academic treining, butoer schools include some theoretical training in fields allied to the occupation for which training Is given. In ell cases, tradeia given under conditions closely siKuloting actual production. Upon oompletlon of the course, the graduate oust spendears in an assigned job, during which tine he isfrom militaryouth grcduatee ore given assignments scasvhat above the level of tbe lowest paid workers, andear graduates enter industry at about tho middle of the range of skills (fourth or fifth worker category J. Before graduation the pupil 1st required to dennnstrate skill coBmensurate with workers in those categories. Some special schools train for even higher skills, but In these cases the prerequisite educational requirements are higher.
c. asniVi1 Iff fUTti
It was planned50 toillion workers in the labor reeerve. Official annGuncffoante, however, indicate that there war* lessillion graduates. Graduations Increased rapidly upeakillion8 and then dropped90urther decrease to It is not deer whether this drop was dueailure of the systea to work or whether less emphasis was deliberately placed on this type of expensive training because the same ends oould be attained mora easily by training on the job for the
ffrnrgnrrrTiu
lover skills end training In Tocetlonal high schools for tbe higherb* srnanslnn In these letter types90 van nor* than double the drop la tb* Intake froa labor reeerree.
Farther Barked oontraotlon ln the labor reserve prograa, without tha sdoptloo of other conpuUory pxcgraaa, vould be highly significant es enaat tba supply of workers of this typ* wa* sufficient to b*y th* oorasl Inducement* and that boss coeroioo was no longer a* Mi sary to easnwal labor froa fare to city snd to tb* never industrial areas.
Sinceerv* training Is daslgnod to aaat th* varying aaada of Industry, th* nuaber of youth trained for specific occupations Tsrlea accordingly from year to year.
Handing nr..
As would be expectedass operation put into *ff*ct speedily,stakes have been made. In tb* early years, food sad quarters provided for tha students war* inferior, and this wasasic causa of th* frequent desertions from the reserves. There are Indications that serious effort* bar* been mad* to remedy these defect*. Moras bar* been sat, snd administration bas bean strengthened. The sane typ* of criticise bas been TOload with respect to ths qualifications of teachers and selection of teaching nsthods. Other cowplalnts have bssn that training facilities worn not organised promptly enough to accommodate reporting recruits and that industries for which worker* war* trained bars failed to use their skills properly, allandicaps seem to be growing pains which will tend to disappear with emparlance snd Improved administration.
Thar* Is tbe additional consideration that since this typ* of education Indiana* free living expenses and transportation. It la relatively expensive, averagingubles per pupil per year. Anubles of this Is, however, offset by the value of goods produced during training,
Th* failure to attain tbe outputillion worker* announced at the beginning of the last Five Tearas been consented on. In spit* of this and of th* handicaps enumerated above, lt can bs said that in the light of pressing need* of Industry during tb* war and earlyiods, the labor rea*rv* system was probably as effective as any device which could have been adopted to filleedsoorly trained labor force. Direct arid once as to tb* quality of graduates is lacking, however, the fact thatears of experience with tbe system. It waa decided to recruit shout half the new workers to be drawn Into industry5) from tb* labor reserve,lear Indication thst It wea
ooaaidered aattafaotory up to that tin*. The feet that8 too planned earaaelan did not take place nay indicate either failure to neat tho pirn or change of th* plan because of preference for too lssa expensive training oa to* job aad ia tooonloona. It is eignlficent that this shrinkage of labor raaarvasith tha desire to Implement universal compulsory aareo-grad* education vhloh would praparo nora pnpila for entry into technieuoa or high aohoola. and which, to th* eaae of retarded pupils, would bo ln conflict alto raoralting of It-year old youth for tha labor reserve.
4.
Vocational high aohoola, or technlouBS, are deolgnod for tralnlDCgrader junior teefarleinue In agrioulture, industry, ancdniBtratioc, law, and aodlolna. Pupils vho have eonploted the seventh grade era eligible to enter either techniouaa or formal high echoola. Those who wish to aeeure junior professional Jobswire enter taohnicoao, while those who wish to train foroaro longer for the top professional jobsthrough regular high school and higher education courses. Vocational aptitude and ability toadubjects alaotha choice. The Dumber who choose toonnleurs ln each field la Halted by toe aru-olLasnt planned to meet the needs of specific occupations. The choice, however, is not irrevocable, sinceercent of too tochnieua graduates with tha highest grades aay be adultted to universities lmaedintaly and others may enter uni varsitieseare of work experienoo.
b.
Teohnicum enrolLnent eyre nd ad steadily fromoa compared with on enrollnentn full-time vocational high schoolsn normal school* and teachers oolleeea ln thoince toe less apt studento have been drastically culled before reaching the seventh grado, fuiluree ln thehigh aohoola ar* not excessive end probably BO pare cat of those who eater graduate. The tachnlcua enrollment include on unknown porooitoge who ara taking corraapnridann* ooorae*.
Although these figuraa aret la believed toot too ratleo havo not changed algniffcantly except pooalblyecent increase in teaohere.
Aboutercent are training for Industry, trausportation,aiiiilcntioos, aboutercent for taachingi aboutercent for sedlolsa;areant for agriculture, andercent for ntocKdlncoou" alalnletmtive
e
o. enhars..
Tmchers in teclmlounfl must bs specialists In their field and graAiateealtfier ednoation institution.
ears, and occasionallyre required for graduation. During thla time the academic work covers the sane general subjects as the course in thaear high school. In addition to practical trainingocation. Tba acedetalo training places special emphasis on subjects basic to tba vocation. For Instance, nursing students emphasise physiology and chemistry, and engineering students emphasise physics and mathematics, with similar variations for other specialties.
beears, practical work is given In laboratories and work shops In the school. In tbe third yoaa, practical work is undertaken, under working conditions in the hospital, factory, or school
Teohnicuas bave treined junior specialistside range of Industries and alsoarge proportion of similar personnel for farms, teaching, end medicine. They oontinue to turn out techniciansresent rate ofer year* This type of training is steadily expending, and adverse criticism In ths Soviet prsss Is rare. Indicating that tbe authorities are well satisfied vith tbe results of this program.6echnlcums were to supplypecialists to the entire labor force. On tbe basis of enrollmentsear. It is probable that this goal has been fully achieved.. On ths basis of an estimated distribution of graduates, this vould meanpecialists for industry,ew teachers,ealth workers,pecialists for collective fame end miscellaneous administrative Tbe fulfillment of tbe announced plan does not mean that Soviet Industry is cow sufficiently supplied with this type of skilled workers. There will alwayseedonsiderable graduation to replace deaths and retirement in addition to workers necessary to expand industry.
VI. fflfllfflf SOTiaUrffl-
oU<
Higher education in the USSR Is planned to supply tbe InteUigentsia, teachers, doctors, engineers, and administrators for the nation. As thisarticularly pressing and veil-recognised need, special effort has been made to develop higher education end scientific research
2.
Inatlfaitlans,
usually found In unlTereltles are phyaloanaadSTtry, biology, geography, geology, medicine, history, philology, and lav. Soma of tb* larger lnrtltutlona add other departmenta such a* economics. Journallea, international relatione, and philosophy.
The principal types of specialized institutes ar* teacher training, medical, polltleal, alectrotechnieal end mechanical engineering, metallurgy, transportation, civil aircraft, chemistry, coal mining, petroleua, geology, metal mining, heavy industry, food, forestry, cinema, agronomy, veterinary, snd Journalism.
toelMrt mt QTndujrta*.
TfrrriTMsIf
Announced enrollment in higher education vasnd, of vhoaere corxaepondeno* students. Recent trends in cumber of students, graduates, snd Institutions ar* shown In Tahl* 4.
Table 4
Higher Education In the USSR
Resident Students
For numbers of Institutions and regular, ee*9. Resident gradostes, excluding higher degree* and oorreapondece* students, are aot lasted,
elimination of poorer pupil* hoe been eo drastic In the lover sohocdn thctaall pereentege of th* beetnter higher Institutions. For thie reason, the eliBlnatlon ie not eo greet betweenand graduation. Aboutercent of entrant* eventually graduate.
taady Increase In number of Institutions snd tb* regular graduates50. In addition. It la est hasted that there0 correspondence graduates,otal, or more than th* goal announced at the beginning of tb* Fir* leer Plan. On the basis of tbe present enrollments, It wouldhat16ore regular studeate willith anro. correspondence courses. Woren constitute aboutercent of the graduatae,
Only aboutoent of the graduates ar* fron univursiUas. These ar* tb* future teachers In higher institutions and high schools, scientists, and top administrators. Graduate work la confined to the universities, andmall but growing number of graduate students aro enrolled.
1 tbe Institutesesident students, distributed about as followsi conomic* and. 2V Thia distribution reflects tb* pressing need for teachers la tbe expanding schools and for engineers for tba national economy,
Shraduatea of higher institutions aro required toears in an assigned Job.
Ccaanletion of th* tenth grade, graduation in theercentechoicnm,uccessful examination Is required for entrance In higher Institutions. So great Is the prestige of the Intelligentsia In th* CSSTt that there la lively competition for tb* pLaoee. An estimatedof the high school graduates enter higher institutions.
Tuitionubles per year is charged, but superior student* receive stipends rangingubles per sooth to fulliploma course*arying nuabar ef jeers of study, at the and oflploaa but no degree Is leaned.
Goursee required of all students in all institutions ara theof Ifarxlsae-Lanlnlsa, political economy, dialectical and historical materialism,oreign language. Military training Is no longerfor women but le loquired of nan in tbe form of physical training and pre induction training. All students are also required toarying length of time in practical application of their specialtyln the comaunlty,
h* practice school, or ln Indue try- Tbo root of tho tlao le -pent cn tho enfejajote related to tha field of specialization. Tbno the holders of diplomas oojiaoyjoad is general to boldare of the bachelor'a degree In the CS except that they hare had aore of the Coaaaniot brand of socio! odenoe end havexanadnrt narrower, hot aore functional, range of courses.
Progress la regnlarly riwwV art by examinations which have the double purpose of finding etteinaent end deteralning tbe amount of scholarship stipend. Stendsrds la the ualverelties ere high. Universities bave tbe bast arnlramad. sad tbs choice of professors. Soae of tbo better organised institutes appruxiaate tha universities In this respect, but tho quality of tenoning la sobs of the Institutes does not aeesure up to university etrndoxds sad tbe ooncentratioaarrow field of vocational training Halts tb* knowledge of graduate*.
6, flrmdnwt^ Morfc.
Orsdoat* work is not so highly developed in the USS* as ln Vestern unirersltiea. It Is, however, undergoing subotentlsl expansion In line with tha strenuous effort* of tb* authorities to develop ad ant if ic and technical nsnpcvnr. Two graduate degrees ar* givenCandidate, whichear* of postgraduate study, plus th* tine necessary tohesis, and Doctor, which reqaire* an additional time, dependent on tbo ability of tbe student.
In voluas anercent of ell degrees given1 vers graduate degree*) as comparedaroant of all degrees in th* US. 2v Tbe ratio of Candidate degress to Doctor's Is shoutooughly tbe sane a* th* ratio of Master'* degrees ton the US.
Tbe Berthed of conducting graduate study doesdiffer essentially froa tbe aethod* of the Vest, consisting of systematic study underrofessor and tb* preparation ond defensehesis,
?. Sfllffartlflp, flMffirrtl'
Tbe objective of this section Is not tohorough appraisal of sclentlfio research but to trace Its rolatlonshlp to higher educational Institutions.
Sclentlfio research in the universities Is carried on in conformity with an over-all plan for research in tbe US3t, Slnoe Corssunist dogas denands that eel once serve tb* people, th* central planning ag ancle* orient the whole prograa to tb* ailitary-Industrial need* of the econony. Th* broad objective* and field* of eapbssls are determined by the fimysflaw (State Planning Cocsaittee) with the advice of the Academy of Sciences and th* ualversltiee, along with other research ageociee, formulate their specific plans within this framework.
lCt' nd th* Lndnatrialth* Academy haa symbolised tha bast In
d haa commanded th* Berrices of th* top aciantiata, who
ighand grant praatig*.
af Salanaa*lso related to th*n the
f*professors nay alao work in th* facilities of the Academy, th* Aoadany aay contract with universities to carry out .
w^!fam!llw noMber Df sredusU students do their worke laocaatorise of the aoadany.
aboratory faciHtias of tha Academy of Solenca* sndvaryconsMerably in adequacy. Although they ere^^fnt.^ortagce hamper operations in ecoe places.
excellent In the more Important
f of "irking conditions which mllltataighscientific output are as J
Scientists must mole their findings conform or see* to conform to the solenca of so lance*rmrxinm-fceuinism. Tn this respect they are under th* constant scrutiny of ths Party, tb* police, and their coUeagne*.
urity regulations are Imposed on projects relating to tbe
oA to Baketo previous work sndwith thair workers
Shortage of personnel leads to overloading of sons of the most competent
workers.
Th*r*trong pressure to complete plans and mast deadlines. This
presanre^ oouplad with the shortage of personnel, leads to reluctance todifficult aailgnaaats or to undue bast*.
on narrow production problems Halt* th* opportunity
for pure research. On th* other hand, th* high degree of specialist ion In
Piaotioaltends to train persons
vail Tersed in their specialty.
he criteria for Judging the adequacy of output of the institutions
IlSB^aiTSH?to be found la tbe situation and ebsrsctarls-tlas of the Soviet economy,
, fooosaiu to Increope nuubera of scientific sad taohnioel personnel boabtoM great notana* of tba rapid arpanelon of tba Industrial labor faro* but also because at tbe and of World bar II therehortage of bigh-snelity workers, vhlch vas due to war losses and to deficiencies in training in the eerli or yearn. The recant expansion of eclantif lo snd tactadnaa pevonmal has been such faster then tba expansion ln tbe total
**aae echnicians snd specialistsigher oredncatloo In the national econocr/ varaercent acre nuaerous thanut workers and eanjloyeee Increased only ZA percent ln thathus there ens considerable leeway for aore efficient staffing of an arpanitlBg aeoncay.
tfao characteristic* of Soriet production which deteralne the nuabars KflfJtypes of engineering and aanngeiMCit personnel required are aaunosdly different fron the Industrial prentice* in the US. Ennaeratlon of tbeprincipal difference* will point up tbe futility of attempting to coapare this category ln th* two countrl**i
Production inBass Tsried and nor*in the critical sectore of tb* econoay, so that fewer skills ara needed.
The itaaa produced by fabrication aro ln general not aoend require lass input of engineering technique end lees
Tb* rigid manpower controls noke It possible to shift critical pareonnal (within thalr spfaar* of competence) to positions of key importance
All of these oharsctarlstloa of th* econoay enable tha ESSR to produce rxcoespfullyaaller number of engineers and scientists andarrower range of skills.
Tha higher education system bas been criticised on tbe ground that the training of many of th* engineers has baan comparatively narrow, asking for difficulty in utilisation outside of the particular field. Satisfactory avidanc*ot available to spprelse this point except for the fact tbat tha course of study in tha specialised institute* is limited to tb* subjects which have rather direct bearing on the specialty.
With respect to scientists, tbe earn* criticism is made, but in this field tha causes of suoh inflexibility as aay exist are probably to be found In the rigid raglaaortatlon of tba research program by tbe plana of th* Acad*ay of Sciences and tha strict saenrity provisions which make tba Inter-change of Information among scientists difficult.
Both of tbe weaknesses santlnncd srls* la part from tha smallof scientists and engineers with graduate training.
BTTWrfTTTTflTi
Soma avid enes to tbo qualitative adequacy of top-level personnelfound ny teats of tbo quality of thoir products. It In generally agreed that the well-trained end experienced work err engaged ln original raesexoc are fully ccanpetent, Tbore la disagreement as to the adequacy of tba workare with tb* production skill neeeeaary to translate research Into plant This la In pert based on tb* Soriet practice of iaporting aucb prochjots as ball bearings, rubber, end certain ti chine tools rather than building up doaestic production. As long as imports are available, bower, this could be based on convenience rather than nueeaelt}-.
>>ld*ac* ia not available to determine the extent to which preooni. production practice* arc attributable to tho use of expert Carmandanoa on this ssalstanc* Is. however, leei-ening, as many Germans ara bains; repatriated.
Oa tb* otbar hand, analysis of the workaanahlpide range of Soviet products leads to th* conclusion that at leant in the critical Induetriee tb* volume and quality of scientific and technical psraoonel Are adequate for tbe operation of tb* Soriet economy at present levels.
Ccmmunist indoctrination inP. permeates all levels of education andot cease upon graduation frcci school. Political education is elaborately organised for various levels of tba population The syFtea is designed both to increase the political eonscloueaaes of tbo generul public and to give practical training to officials cf tbarnaont. and labor organizations. While exact figures as to enrollments ere not available, itlear from tha Soviet pressigh percentage of members of Eh* Prrty, tb*(All-Onion Lenin Ccasruolst union ofnd tba aimed forces receive or have raoaived such inctructlone. In recant years, special effort has been made to enroll non-Party nember*.
laxity of politloal Indoctrination during World War II and rapidof tha Party caused growing concern for the Intensification of political training. This task was assigned to the Agitation end Pro Uganda Section of the Central Cesmltte* of th* All-Onion Ccexsunlst Party, which hooomplex system of study groups end sctiools,taff of full-timepart-time "propagandists" sadrepared instruction naterials and lecture courses, end constantly cuperrieed the operation of tb* system.
Indoctrination of th* panaral publicrganized In general aoueetion schools, political, schools, circles, end self-Instruction conducted under th* guidanceonsultant.
In tha armed forces, schools are maintained at the divisionalara given.
Msre fbraal on-the-job ttnining is given ln two levela of nightraning Party Schools and Right universities of Marxlan^anlnlan. Bothasr courseseak. The chief difference Is that tha light TJnlreraltlaa require completion of the tenth grade for entrance and offer sonavhet aore advanced courses.
Full-<lne Instruction Is available to aore important officials who haveonplste secondary school educationear Party schools. Theyourse of study which Includes history, foreign policy, tbe Russian language, palitlosl economy, and dialectic and historical mstsrlalisn. Passing students areiploma.
Tba Higher Party School (including the correspondence division) is also open to persons who haveull secondary education and who bave proved theaselves to be reliable Cceisunlsts. This courseears.
Graduate degrees of Doctor and Candidate of Science are offered by the Acedeay of Social Sciences, aitrance requires graduation from anof higher educationears' good standingarty member. Instruction is on tbe level of other graduate degrees. The top-flight officials snd theoreticians ere trained by the Academy of Social Sciences, which baa also sponsored courses for teacher training.
AFPFXTJIX A
MFTPODXOGT
Tor th* BMt partsynthesle of facts fron numerous sources has been aade to prodeherent picture of the operation and product of tha Soviet educational ays ten* Mo oonnlieatod statistical loci oilloatsoat currant flgorao apply= ewiruraB are cited. In eoaa casoo It was necessary to appralaa tbe pobllBhed figures ln carder to clarify their coverage,. This waa usually dona by comparing currant announceaents vith thoao of previous years.
Estimates of school age population are CIA estimates*
Estimates of educational expenditures wore made frum the USSR budget announoerwita It was neeeaaary to eejrogato expenditure for construction and operation of schools from political snd propaganda items in order to obtain comparability with US figures. This wan done by asEuning that tha expenditure for these Items in the whole USSR waa proportionate to those announced for the RSFSR.
Estimates of enrollment by grade in tbe grade schools ware oonn true ted from scattered data covering such ltena xt numbers toeing exati nations (above the fourthan bars entering high school, and mmborc taking examinations for high school graduation. These estimates "ere generally confirmed by tha few local enrollmentri but! on which were found.
1* of Sources.
Tignrae. aa to *nrollaanto In vartoua types of schools ore fron Sorlot ennouooonantd szxl are conalderod to be accurateercent. Oeually plan fulflUnont was used rather than plan projection. Sonatinas tho two mora oaaawered to spprales tho extent of plan fulfillment. Figures are believed to represent tho total onrollnent during the year rather than the average at any on* tlae during tho year.
of educational philosophy and general goals araand officially approved publications of policy! for exannlo,of Tass illat aorallty" is froa G. S. Counts* auBRsry ofofficial pedagogy and baa the effect of law in natter* of aethodand content of
Doecrlptlonn of organisation are availablounber of sources which are conalBtent. Statements as to coureoa of otudy are likewise consistentasher of eoureesi
Analysis of handicaps lo based largely on st.cto.-wnto in the Soviet preee. It is beliovod that thoseubstantial basis of fact, but lt Is sonatinas difficult to dstaraineondition is loo si snd when lt ia general or whan lt la ths result of political animus against an educational official.
Appraisal of attainment of goals ia of two types: quantitative (such as alas of enrollments snd graduation) snd qualitative (effort to apprais* the value of tb* educational product). Quantitative eaasurenent isossserlBon of results with announced objectives. Qualitative appraisal ia baaed upon elim erldonce and in aoaa lnatanoca is approached indirectly by attempting to detsrralno tha offsctivoneoa of graduates.
2. Sources.
f tho Constitution
Intdnskly Sbornlk. Vol., pp.f.
.ant to Bo Ilka
a. T. Iorlmar, The RnwlaUon of the Soviot Onion.. 79
-
ouwlillkhgatr
oears. lorlaer,
op-ee Table.slow,
schooloear* of fcge frcei tliejorsnu uf the
ffatlTITIor the XSR schoolTahl*.elow. Resources are measured by the for IVW ia used el nes business taxes; Soriet CS? io
froaIK).
I. fcrrtlqrcdrfH-nfyarfT
iaw.
Bureau. qfpjya.
of Central Statistical Administration, FBIS,1 Stat* Flan, FHS,
B. ting, easel*op.
.
iaWi,
Enrollment up0 fron rtckoTBtiv axl'shrrlk.o.eb
nrollment1 fron FBIS,2
FBIS,
ftjaanUi, Sunn ats Offica of Unuum,
v hap, IT,
.
Announcensut0 Plan fulfillment,8)
Stu hap. IV,
OSSa aforaa esttaurtad fron A. XjU Clnietskiy, Prologe aching CapVaaTln the ttaharS figureeTrora tir, UStncation.
17. Iwraasa la graduate*BIS,L| increase in workers . from rfiTS,U
Original document.
Comment about this article, ask questions, or add new information about this topic: