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Ananmnt of Sovlot Spaco Transportation Tochriology
Siuamaiy
rimary strength or ;nc rogram i5 US spacens. While muCli of Ihfir SOCCC55 is dependent on their conr.cc.vai ivc vOC of technology, there .ire areasthey dieId-leaders, such as in sr.or.iidf liquid propel lam engine technology In addition, the Soviets hove i) Sl-'ony research programide variety of chnolog ins for incorporation inioansportat ion Soviet progressdeveloping space transportation systems ivto the deter locating Soviet economy- causes cots in space funding, esult of the octet io:at mo economic climate in the Soviet Union, thi-iv rs, cOimCuS incentive Cor the Soviets to sell existing systems to the West andestern partners Tor jointly developing future systems
This ei-.J'.in was ed the O of
Scientificeapons Hcsc-irc l queries are -ClComc ano may be dir,o
K 'HOI* CI. IIV
Introductloo
Space transportation technology can be broadly categorized into seven components;
Propulsion ayste-as.
Structures and naterlals.
control and life support systeas.
Navigation and guidance.
Systeas engineering and integration.
Laur.rh support and operations.
Soviet capabilities In these areas range from being the world leaders In <orable liquid propulsion technology to having very Halted capabilities in some areas of eerotheraodynaaics due to their lac* of high-Speed computers. While the Soviets *in very conservative tn incorporating new technologies In designing and building their systeas, they have relatively'- pi lor re*earchijlQ and developing advanced technologies lor future system-.
Propulsion System
Llguid-fropellant Rocket Technology
The Soviets are the world leaders in IIqu id-propel lent rocket technology, based on the design of their space launchers(CBHs, using closed-loop cycle storable llquid-propellant engines. The Soviet lead in
storable propellaot technology applications over the U5 is aboutears The Soviets, however., were late In flying a liquidhydrogen piapelled vehicle, having had several significant teat failures in the late. They reached this goal T when the SL-n heavy lift launch vehicle flew (or the first tlae.
Since the, the Soviets have conducted eatenstvc* research and testing programs in high-energy liquid pinpels and engine technology. The Slate Institute of Applied Chcaistry iClPKhi at Leningrad is the key Soviet cheelcal industryt ion for liquid Bissllc propellant research. In aent, v p. GlusMto, one of the top Soviet rocket engine
* ctes fit fluid dynanic and
the lyitanlc iiri-rionona that govern the fliylitospict?
vch s thoy enit, enter, .na nidiSeiovoi in an atmosphere. In
Ihot chefehicle's interaction with the
envi.>ment, it iapacts all areasehicle including its
digit control, structures, materials, aerodynamic performance,
fJigi 'qiound Operations., and propulsion.
designers, stated that an experimental closed-loop (staged combustion) enginei which used fluorine and anmonia, was built and tested. The Soviets have mentioned the use of slush Hydrogen In their literature, buthas been no direct evidence to indicate any developtoent rr
they had a
trlpropenanc tiauorine/lithium-hydrogen) engine in an advanced
stage of research. Soviet texts continue to nentlon tripropellants, but there has been no other evidence of work; on this or any other metallized cryogenic propcllant.
Nuclear Rocket Technology
The Soviet Union is investigating several approaches to nuclear rocket propulsion systems. These include solid core reactors using hydrogen propellants, gas and plasma core reactors, and aerosol or levitated bed reactors. He believe primary focus is on solid core reactor technology, with gas core reactor development receiving considerable attention and otheristant third.
Soviet programs in nuclear reactor propulsion are highly classified andarge number ot institutions- There appears to be close cooperationumtocr ol institutions involved. Reactor technology is Investigated at the Kurchatov institute of Atonic Energy, at the Scientific Research Institute ot Thermal Processes, at the Central Design Bureau of Experimental Machine Building in Kaliningrad, and the Turaycvo branch of the Favorskiy Design Oureau. umber of other institutes Study materials and therratidyrjai-ic properties, and systems integration and control.
Hypersonic Research
The Soviets are actively ceseaiching hypctsomc Clight technologies directly applicable to tians-atmospheiic vehicles or riyback first stages for space launch systems. Soviet research indicates that they have the necessary technology to design external compression inlets Operation up to MaCh 3. 2 the technology was available to begin development oc an uncooled inlet cranjet operating up to Hach 6 for short (under two minutes) flight times. The technolngy for a first-generation cooled inlet could have been available in. The technology necessary toompletely cooled inlet capable of steady-state operation upill not be available until the0 . Potential applicationsypersonic cruising vehicle capable of flight spec-is approachinqt high altitude or an.space launch system capable of acceleration Through Hach 8
J
The structural technology required to use cryogenicsoolant was developed by the Soviet liquid rocket industry during the early lDfiQs. Extending this knowledge to hydrogen or methane fuel being used to cool an engine and critical vehicle components would require advanced research and will not be available to the Soviets until the. "
Aerotodynanica
Soviet lack of high-speed computers puts themonsiderable disadvantage for mathematical modeling. While the Soviets have access to all the major Western computational fluid dynamic codes, their computers are too slow and have memories too small to do precision simulation work. The Soviets used CFD modeling for design of the Buran, but itubordinate role to flight testing of aodels. Tbe Soviets flew both orbital and suborbital subscale flight test vehicles (designatednd Bor-5) in designing their shuttle and used these results to confirm/verify their rudimentary computer modeling. The Soviets also built full scale models of the Buran for drop testingu^pped one version with jet engines for aerodynamic testing.
Structuros and Materials
Fabrication/Manufacturing
Soviet and Western technologies in metals and alloys are generally cos-parable, but tho Soviets lag in several key areas of fabrication and production. The Soviets meet their structural requirements in Melding effective systems through innovative engineering. The Soviets have an adequate capability to fabricate advanced composite materials into structural components foe aerospace uses. Rather sophisticated structures have been built, largely with manual fabrication and inspection techniques.
Metallic Materials
Thean be credited with possessing an excellent capability in many areas of metallic materials to include titanium, electroslag technology, thermoncchanical treatments, aluminum-lithium alloys, and powder metallurqy. Inpul.iion systems the Soviets rely almost exclusively on netallic: materials.
The Soviets ariety Of advanced materials in their propulsion systems. ngineurbo-pump shaft made ofroduced by povdei metallurgical techniques.
nvogemc nydrogen tank
for thelaimed" tO be_taoricated from machined aluminum-lithium alloy.
Composites
The Due an is the only Soviet space system that makes extensive use of composites. The protective tiles on Buran are made of superfine quart! fibers with flexible high-temperature organic fibers. raphite material is used on the areas subjected to greatest reentry heating, reported to be as highegrees Centigrade. The doora for the
"jTne wing ana tailuges or eturan are taoricateon two-directional carbon-carbon composites. The carbon-carbon leading edges are coated with molybdenua disilicida for protect ton from oxidation. Metal matrix composite tubing is used extensively throughout the fuselage, and carbon/polyiaide composites are used in the Structure near tbe engines.
^rtif plasnatroniaaau induction furnace that provides a pure, uneontaairiaied iorwent for testing item* ranging0 cm in diameter. The facility can simulate many combinations of reentry conditions Dy varying the temperature and pressure.
Environmental Control and LI fa Support Systems
The environment a) control and life support systems foundSoviet space station Mir are representative ofin this area. Kithew exceptionsand life support systemselatively lowtechnological sophistication and are strictly lunctional System failures due to the Inadequacies ofare expected and are taken into account duringensure the safety of the cosmonauts. Soviet engineers aware ot the limitations of Soviet technology and seldom. design systems that are dependent on it a: Soviet success in apace has come ith well proven
Thr Soviets reeogniie the -nefitlosed life support system and are developing tech to achieve this end Mhile Mir contains systems for producing oxygen and water from cosmonaut waste products, they -in still largely dependent on Progress resupply craft for replenishing consumables. Mir continues the long-standing Soviet practice of maintaining an
inteiloi shirt-sleeve environiiient of approximately sea level pressure arid the nitrogen/oxygen composition of air%he Sovietsedundant system with oxygon being generated by the electrolysis water, or released fro* cartridges brought on Progress
The Soviets ssaintaln an atmospheric composition (by volume)
of:
stax
to
Carbon Dioxide i
max
The temppiature on Mir is maintained betweenndegrees Celsius. The somewhat high upper limit ofegrees was provided to insure comfort in the station when the cosmonauts are exposed to direct draft (from circulation fans). The cosmonauts often complain about the temperature being too high, particularly during exercise. According to the Soviets the thermal regulating system uses "heat pipes", located on the outside ef the station, to regulate the temperature. The station pressure is maintained between^ tjaHg and relative humidity between.
The priataiy source of water is that delivered by Progress vehicles. It is Stored in 10 liter tanks ant) can remain potable foreai. Each cosmonaut is rationed J liters of water per day. Some water regeneration is performed on condensate water, as had been done on Salyut stations, but the Soviets, htvc hau difficulty inie system voiknjo and the cosmonauts are reluctant to drink rccyclecl water
The Soviet condensate water purification system consists of successive columns with ion exchange rosins ication exchange, anion exchange, mixed layer, and activated carboni. The necessary degree of water purification is reached by manipulating the column working volumes, grain diameter, optimal proportions of ammonite and cationite. and quantity of activated charcoal. The Soviet a. claim this purification system is durable and reliable.
navigation and Guidance
Soviet launch vehicleside variation in navigation techniques. The navigational coordinate systems appear to be different on dlflerrnt vehicles. On some vehicles, the navigational jccelerometera appear to be body mounted, while on others they are mounted on menially fixed or lorqued pliitfuim
s
systems. Also, the number of aecclnrometers used and the platform accelcromctcr mounting axes differ between vehicles.
Guidance on Soviet vehicles is believed to involve generating errors based on comparing programmed attitude and velocity histories (computed and stored in the vehicle prior to launch) with the actual values attained during flight. This guidance scheme is implemented successfully by the Soviets, primarily because they have developed engines with thrust magnitude control. Vehicles with tlie ability to vary thrust magnitude, as well as direction, can control the vehicle velocity vector to an arbitrary degree during the flight, depending only on the response time and limits of the control and sensor systems. Guidance computations are greatly simplified compared to vehicles without thrust magnitude control
Sensing vehicle attitude deviations from the reference attitude is accomplished on all vehicles byhree-axis gyrostabilned platform. (Depending on application, the platform is either inerlially referenced or torqucd in the pitchhe vehicle attitude deviations arc probably determined from each Of three (pitch, yaw, roll) gimbal angle picX-offs. These attitude deviations are then used in the computation function to drive attitude errors.
Systoma Engineering and Integration
The Sovietschedule-dominated management approach for system development. Technology selection occurs earlychedule-dominant managementthe full-scale engineering phase. This management approach, similar to that used by US corporations for the developnent of large commercial systems, is one in whichredetermined delivery date taxes precedence over changing the system's design during development. Technology developmentew soviet system typically taxesoears, and actual system development averageso IS vears. times -hich have not changed since the.
The development tineoviet system is not reduced by implementing what the United States wouldcrash-program. Hhen the Soviets describerogram asheir aim is to hold to the normal schedule evenroject is difficult or complex, oviet program is described ashat should be interpreted to mean that it is allowec first call on resources rather than to speed up the program. The Soviets have used their conservative approach lecting technology since the. They wait,echnology has proved to be producible befcrw beginning full-scale system development. The Soviets tried some programs in the
All Soviet launch systems, regardless of physical size, are assembled, and have their initial checkout accomplished horizontally under one roof. Payload Baling is normally conducted at the launch systen preparation facility, and the complete system is transported horizontally to the launch pad by rail. This practicethe on-pad time, allowing fast pad turnaround tine and minimal system exposure to inclement weather and intelligence collection efforts. This practice also permits rapid removal of the vehicle from the launch pad in the eventystem malfunction.*
outlook
The collapaing Soviot economy will significantly slow development of new apace transportation vehicles in the Soviet Union. The Soviet space program is no longer operating in an environment of steadily increasing budgets. According to press reports, space funding90 was cut0 percent. The existing excess of launch vehicles in the Soviet Union will make programs for developing new ones particularly vulnerable to cuts. Soviet space transportation technology is likely lo suffer as money is shifted away from development of new transportation systems to meeting an inn eased call for directing space resources toward solving civil needs. There iscramble among Soviet space industries to find alternate financing, either through sales to the west or programs for joint research and development with Westernam-at ions.
Thr Soviets alreadyignificant excess launch capacity. Over the past two years the Soviet yearly launch rale has decreased0 per year through, toer year, leaving them with an excess production capacity. Tbe newest Soviet systems, thenergiy* and the Buran shuttle, currently have no payloads to be launched on them. Delays oi curtailments in future programs, such as the Kirpace station, will diminish the need for new transportation systems to support or launch them.
hOlC Soviet space industries are looking for sale* of Space technology to the Wrist to makeup lor their budget shortfalls. The historically secretive Soviet space program now morearage sale. The Soviets have placed a for salt sign on almost everything connected with their space program, from launch vehicles, to individual rocket engines, to proposals (or jointly developing andeusable space plane launched from the top of the Soviet. While they hava been unsuccessful so far, the Soviets will likely continue their efforts lo work with the west. Almost all of the Soviet commercial offerings are derived from military systems whoa* development costs are alreadv .defrayed and thereby pose little additional financial risk.
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Original document.
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